Interpretation of the photon: wave–particle duality

2012 ◽  
Vol 90 (9) ◽  
pp. 855-863
Author(s):  
Gilbert R. Hoy ◽  
Jos Odeurs
Keyword(s):  
Distribution Function ◽  
Probability Distribution ◽  
Probability Density ◽  
Coherence Length ◽  
Probability Distribution Function ◽  
Three Dimensional ◽  
Space Time ◽  
Maximum Probability ◽  
Excited System ◽  
Wave Particle Duality

A simple model is provided to obtain the space–time probability-distribution function of a photon emitted without recoil by an excited system (atom, nucleus, …) in one dimension. A three-dimensional formulation is not needed for our discussion. A quantum mechanical calculation, using the Heitler method, is employed to obtain the solution. The space–time probability-distribution function is not the photon wavefunction. In fact, the area under the space–time probability-distribution function is time dependent. It obtains its final value only as t → ∞. The frequency composition of the photon is found and its time dependence determined to be in accord with the time–energy uncertainty principle. In the wave picture, the coherence length of a photon is found to be equal to the distance from the maximum probability-density position in the photon back toward the source to a position where the probability density has decreased to e–1 of its maximum value. The concept of the coherence length is applied to understand the exponential lifetime curve in the wave picture. This latter measurement is usually explained by saying, in the particle picture, that the photon can appear immediately after formation of the excited state or at a variety of later times according to an exponential probability distribution.

COMPARISON OF POINT-, LINE- AND BOUNDARY-SAMPLED INTERCEPTS INSIDE A CIRCLE OR SPHERE

2003 ◽  
Vol 17 (02) ◽  
pp. 319-330
Author(s):  
ZHENG-WEI YANG ◽  
GUI-WU WEI
Keyword(s):  
Particle Size ◽  
Distribution Function ◽  
Probability Density Function ◽  
Probability Distribution ◽  
Probability Density ◽  
Coefficient Of Variation ◽  
Probability Distribution Function ◽  
Geometric Probability ◽  
Particle Sizes ◽  
Point Line

Point-, line- or boundary-sampled intercepts may be measured inside a particle as a measure of particle size. Each intercept is primarily characterized by three geometric properties: length, location and orientation. Circle and sphere models are used in the present study to analyze these properties. The probability distribution function, probability density function, expectation and coefficient of variation for each of the properties were presented based on geometric probability and mathematical statistics. Such presentation would be helpful for potential users of stereology to better understand the concept of intercepts and implement stereological intercept measurement for estimation of particle sizes in practice.

The joint probability distribution function of structure factors with rational indices. VI. Cases with reduced dimensionality

1999 ◽  
Vol 55 (6) ◽  
pp. 984-990
Author(s):  
Carmelo Giacovazzo ◽  
Dritan Siliqi ◽  
Cristina Fernández-Castaño ◽  
Giovanni Luca Cascarano ◽  
Benedetta Carrozzini
Keyword(s):  
Distribution Function ◽  
Probability Distribution ◽  
Probability Distribution Function ◽  
Mixed Type ◽  
Three Dimensional ◽  
Joint Probability ◽  
Joint Probability Distribution ◽  
Reduced Dimensionality ◽  
Structure Factors ◽  
Joint Probability Distribution Function

The probabilistic formulas relating standard and mixed type reflections (these last show integral and half-integral indices) are derived. It is shown that probabilistic estimates can be obtained by using particular sections of the three-dimensional reciprocal space. The concept of structure invariant is extended to define the wider class of structure quasi-invariant. Their statistical behaviour is briefly discussed with the help of some practical tests.

scholarly journals An Online Application for ΔR Calculation

Radiocarbon ◽  
2016 ◽  
Vol 59 (5) ◽  
pp. 1623-1627 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ron W Reimer ◽  
Paula J Reimer
Keyword(s):  
Distribution Function ◽  
Probability Distribution ◽  
Calibration Curve ◽  
Probability Distribution Function ◽  
Museum Collections ◽  
Online Program ◽  
Online Application ◽  
Radiocarbon Calibration

AbstractA regional offset (ΔR) from the marine radiocarbon calibration curve is widely used in calibration software (e.g. CALIB, OxCal) but often is not calculated correctly. While relatively straightforward for known-age samples, such as mollusks from museum collections or annually banded corals, it is more difficult to calculate ΔR and the uncertainty in ΔR for 14C dates on paired marine and terrestrial samples. Previous researchers have often utilized classical intercept methods that do not account for the full calibrated probability distribution function (pdf). Recently, Soulet (2015) provided R code for calculating reservoir ages using the pdfs, but did not address ΔR and the uncertainty in ΔR. We have developed an online application for performing these calculations for known-age, paired marine and terrestrial 14C dates and U-Th dated corals. This article briefly discusses methods that have been used for calculating ΔR and the uncertainty and describes the online program deltar, which is available free of charge.

scholarly journals Optimal Taylor–Couette turbulence

2012 ◽  
Vol 706 ◽  
pp. 118-149 ◽  
Author(s):  
Dennis P. M. van Gils ◽  
Sander G. Huisman ◽  
Siegfried Grossmann ◽  
Chao Sun ◽  
Detlef Lohse
Keyword(s):  
Distribution Function ◽  
Probability Distribution ◽  
Angular Velocity ◽  
Probability Distribution Function ◽  
Neutral Line ◽  
Velocity Ratio ◽  
Outer Cylinder ◽  
Taylor Number ◽  
Counter Rotation ◽  
Taylor Couette

AbstractStrongly turbulent Taylor–Couette flow with independently rotating inner and outer cylinders with a radius ratio of $\eta = 0. 716$ is experimentally studied. From global torque measurements, we analyse the dimensionless angular velocity flux ${\mathit{Nu}}_{\omega } (\mathit{Ta}, a)$ as a function of the Taylor number $\mathit{Ta}$ and the angular velocity ratio $a= \ensuremath{-} {\omega }_{o} / {\omega }_{i} $ in the large-Taylor-number regime $1{0}^{11} \lesssim \mathit{Ta}\lesssim 1{0}^{13} $ and well off the inviscid stability borders (Rayleigh lines) $a= \ensuremath{-} {\eta }^{2} $ for co-rotation and $a= \infty $ for counter-rotation. We analyse the data with the common power-law ansatz for the dimensionless angular velocity transport flux ${\mathit{Nu}}_{\omega } (\mathit{Ta}, a)= f(a)\hspace{0.167em} {\mathit{Ta}}^{\gamma } $, with an amplitude $f(a)$ and an exponent $\gamma $. The data are consistent with one effective exponent $\gamma = 0. 39\pm 0. 03$ for all $a$, but we discuss a possible $a$ dependence in the co- and weakly counter-rotating regimes. The amplitude of the angular velocity flux $f(a)\equiv {\mathit{Nu}}_{\omega } (\mathit{Ta}, a)/ {\mathit{Ta}}^{0. 39} $ is measured to be maximal at slight counter-rotation, namely at an angular velocity ratio of ${a}_{\mathit{opt}} = 0. 33\pm 0. 04$, i.e. along the line ${\omega }_{o} = \ensuremath{-} 0. 33{\omega }_{i} $. This value is theoretically interpreted as the result of a competition between the destabilizing inner cylinder rotation and the stabilizing but shear-enhancing outer cylinder counter-rotation. With the help of laser Doppler anemometry, we provide angular velocity profiles and in particular identify the radial position ${r}_{n} $ of the neutral line, defined by $ \mathop{ \langle \omega ({r}_{n} )\rangle } \nolimits _{t} = 0$ for fixed height $z$. For these large $\mathit{Ta}$ values, the ratio $a\approx 0. 40$, which is close to ${a}_{\mathit{opt}} = 0. 33$, is distinguished by a zero angular velocity gradient $\partial \omega / \partial r= 0$ in the bulk. While for moderate counter-rotation $\ensuremath{-} 0. 40{\omega }_{i} \lesssim {\omega }_{o} \lt 0$, the neutral line still remains close to the outer cylinder and the probability distribution function of the bulk angular velocity is observed to be monomodal. For stronger counter-rotation the neutral line is pushed inwards towards the inner cylinder; in this regime the probability distribution function of the bulk angular velocity becomes bimodal, reflecting intermittent bursts of turbulent structures beyond the neutral line into the outer flow domain, which otherwise is stabilized by the counter-rotating outer cylinder. Finally, a hypothesis is offered allowing a unifying view and consistent interpretation for all these various results.

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