RESPONSE OF MALE GERM CELLS OF MOUSE TO ACUTE AND FRACTIONATED DOSES OF 131I INDUCED RADIATION

1982 ◽  
Vol 24 (6) ◽  
pp. 817-820 ◽  
Author(s):  
P. P. Reddy ◽  
S. B. Reddy ◽  
D. N. Ebenezer ◽  
O. S. Reddi
Keyword(s):  
Survival Rate ◽  
B Cells ◽  
Germ Cells ◽  
Dose Group ◽  
Radioactive Iodine ◽  
Type A ◽  
Type B ◽  
Survival Fraction ◽  
Male Germ Cells ◽  
Type A Spermatogonia

The effects of radioactive iodine in acute as well as fractionated doses on male germ cells were studied. 131I in four acute doses of 10, 15, 20 and 25 μCi was given intraperitoneally. For fractionated doses, 12.5 μCi was given twice with an interval of 24 h. A dose relationship was exhibited between the concentration of radionuclide and the survival fraction of type A spermatogonia, intermediate and type B spermatogonia and preleptotene spermatocytes. The maximum depletion was recorded after 25 μCi. The survival values for this dose group were 40.4, 51.4, and 25.0% for type A cells, intermediate and type B cells and preleptotene spermatocytes, respectively. Fractionated doses of radioiodine also reduced the survival rate of gonadal cells and are more effective than 20 μCi acute dose in decreasing the survival fraction of all types of gonadal cells.

The population of germ cells in immature male rats following irradiation at birth

1966 ◽  
Vol 165 (998) ◽  
pp. 103-135 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Germ Cells ◽  
Total Population ◽  
Primordial Germ Cells ◽  
Type A ◽  
Male Rats ◽  
Type B ◽  
The Absolute ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Transitional Cells ◽  
Type A Spermatogonia

Male rats were irradiated with 19 r on the day of birth, and killed at intervals ranging from 5 to 18 days. Estimates were made of the absolute and relative numbers of germ cells at different stages of spermatogenesis in 64 irradiated and 61 untreated specimens. In the normal rat, the calculated population of germ cells increased from about 160000 at 5 days to 30 million at 18 days. Only negligible numbers of primordial germ cells (gonocytes and transitional cells) persisted beyond the age of 10 days. Small numbers of spermatogonia type A appeared at 5 days (15000) and their population rose to about 1 million at 12 days, and 2 million at 18 days (7 % of all germ cells). Intermediate spermatogonia first occurred in appreciable numbers (23000 to 55000) at 8 or 9 days, when the population of type-A spermatogonia was 360000. The subsequent rise in the population of intermediate spermatogonia was more rapid than that of type A (4 million at 18 days). Spermatogonia type B and primary spermatocytes appeared at 9 to 10 days, and their numbers rose more steeply still (6.5 and 16 million at 18 days, respectively). Irradiation at birth exerted no rapid effect on the cytological appearance of primordial germ cells. Transformation from gonocytes to transitional cells appeared to proceed normally and the estimated total population of germ cells at 5 days was no smaller than in the controls. Subsequently, however, many of the transitional cells failed to divide: they enlarged to form giant cells, acquired bizarre nuclear outlines, and persisted for unusually long periods. Some degenerated at mitotic prophase or metaphase, while a few seemed to die at interphase, without entering division. The calculated total population of germ cells in irradiated rats rose from 160000 at 5 days to 9.4 million at 18 days. Small numbers of spermatogonia type A, presumably derived from such primordial germ cells as were able to complete mitosis, appeared some 2 to 3 days later than in controls. The number of type-A spermatogonia in 7-day-old irradiated rats was 44000, cf. 215000 in controls; the difference became less pronounced with time, and by the age of 18 days, the population of 1.9 million was comparable to that estimated for the controls. Small numbers of intermediate spermatogonia appeared on the 9th (8000) and 10th day (35000), when the population of type-A spermatogonia was about 110000 and 260000 respectively. By the 18th day, intermediate spermatogonia numbered 2 million. The populations of type-B spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes rose from 11000 to 13000 at 10 days to 1.6 and 3.4 million, respectively, at 18 days. The difference in the absolute and relative numbers of germ cells between normal and irradiated testes widened progressively with advance in the developmental stage of the germ cells. Analysis of the results indicates that in the reduced population of spermatogonia type A after irradiation, the pattern of spermatogonial mitoses is modified so as to favour the formation of more type-A, in preference to intermediate, spermatogonia.

Studies of Sl/Sld in equilibrium with +/+ mouse aggregation chimaeras. II. Effect of the steel locus on spermatogenesis

Development ◽  
1988 ◽  
Vol 102 (1) ◽  
pp. 117-126 ◽  
Author(s):  
H. Nakayama ◽  
H. Kuroda ◽  
H. Onoue ◽  
J. Fujita ◽  
Y. Nishimune ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Mast Cells ◽  
Germ Cell ◽  
Germ Cells ◽  
Cross Sections ◽  
Sertoli Cells ◽  
Type A ◽  
Precursor Cells ◽  
Intrinsic Defect ◽  
Serial Sections ◽  
Type A Spermatogonia

Mutant mice of Sl/Sld genotype are deficient in melanocytes, erythrocytes, mast cells and germ cells. Deficiency of melanocytes, erythrocytes and mast cells is not attributable to an intrinsic defect in their precursor cells but to a defect in the tissue environment that is necessary for migration, proliferation and/or differentiation. We investigated the mechanism of germ cell deficiency in male Sl/Sld mice by producing aggregation chimaeras from Sl/Sld and +/+ embryos. Chimaeric mice with apparent white stripes were obtained. Two of four such chimaeras were fertile and the phenotypes of resulting progenies showed that some Sl/Sld germ cells had differentiated into functioning sperms in the testis of the chimaeras. In cross sections of the testes of chimaeras, both differentiated and nondifferentiated tubules were observed. However, the proportions of type A spermatogonia to Sertoli cells in both types of tubules were comparable to the values observed in differentiated tubules of normal +/+ mice. We reconstructed the whole length of four tubules from serial sections. Differentiated and nondifferentiated segments alternated in a single tubule. The shortest differentiated segment contained about 180 Sertoli cells and the shortest nondifferentiated segment about 150 Sertoli cells. These results suggest that Sertoli cells of either Sl/Sld or +/+ genotype make discrete patches and that differentiation of type A spermatogonia does not occur in patches of Sl/Sld Sertoli cells.

scholarly journals Spermatogonial morphology and kinetics during testis development in mice: a high-resolution light microscopy approach

Reproduction ◽  
2011 ◽  
Vol 142 (1) ◽  
pp. 145-155 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ana Luiza Drumond ◽  
Marvin L Meistrich ◽  
Hélio Chiarini-Garcia
Keyword(s):  
High Resolution ◽  
Light Microscopy ◽  
Type A ◽  
Absolute Number ◽  
Morphological Development ◽  
Type B ◽  
Developmental Sequence ◽  
Adult Mice ◽  
Pathological Conditions ◽  
Type A Spermatogonia

Despite the knowledge of spermatogonial biology in adult mice, spermatogonial development in immature animals has not been fully characterized. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the ontogeny of the morphological development of the spermatogonial lineage in C57BL/6 mouse testis, using high-resolution light microscopy. Spermatogonial morphology, chronology, and absolute number were determined for different ages postpartum (pp). The morphology of spermatogonia in immature mice was similar to that of adult spermatogonia, although their nuclear diameter was slightly smaller. The A1 spermatogonia were first observed on day 2 pp, and only 24 h later, differentiating type A3 and A4 spermatogonia were observed in the seminiferous cords. This result indicated a shortening of the spermatogonial phase for immature mice of about ∼2.5 days when compared with adult mice and suggests that gonocytes and/or A1 spermatogonia could directly become A4 spermatogonia, skipping the developmental sequence of type A spermatogonia. These A4 spermatogonia are functional as they develop into type B spermatogonia by day 5 pp. At day 8 pp, while differentiation to spermatocytes begins, the Aund spermatogonia reach their maximal numbers, which are maintained through adulthood. The various details of the spermatogonial behavior in immature normal mice described in this study can be used as a baseline for further studies under experimental or pathological conditions.

scholarly journals Isolation and Characterization of Highly Pure Type A Spermatogonia From Sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus) Using Flow-Cytometric Cell Sorting

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Xuan Xie ◽  
Tomáš Tichopád ◽  
Galina Kislik ◽  
Lucie Langerová ◽  
Pavel Abaffy ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Germ Cells ◽  
Cell Sorting ◽  
Developmental Stages ◽  
Type A ◽  
Cell Populations ◽  
Forward Scatter ◽  
Flow Cytometric ◽  
Flow Cytometric Cell ◽  
Type A Spermatogonia

Sturgeons are among the most ancient linages of actinopterygians. At present, many sturgeon species are critically endangered. Surrogate production could be used as an affordable and a time-efficient method for endangered sturgeons. Our study established a method for identifying and isolating type A spermatogonia from different developmental stages of testes using flow cytometric cell sorting (FCM). Flow cytometric analysis of a whole testicular cell suspension showed several well-distinguished cell populations formed according to different values of light scatter parameters. FCM of these different cell populations was performed directly on glass slides for further immunocytochemistry to identify germ cells. Results showed that the cell population in gate P1 on a flow cytometry plot (with high forward scatter and high side scatter parameter values) contains the highest amount of type A spermatogonia. The sorted cell populations were characterized by expression profiles of 10 germ cell specific genes. The result confirmed that setting up for the P1 gate could precisely sort type A spermatogonia in all tested testicular developmental stages. The P2 gate, which was with lower forward scatter and side scatter values mostly, contained type B spermatogonia at a later maturing stage. Moreover, expressions of plzf, dnd, boule, and kitr were significantly higher in type A spermatogonia than in later developed germ cells. In addition, plzf was firstly found as a reliable marker to identify type A spermatogonia, which filled the gap of identification of spermatogonial stem cells in sterlet. It is expected to increase the efficiency of germ stem cell culture and transplantation with plzf identification. Our study thus first addressed a phenotypic characterization of a pure type A spermatogonia population in sterlet. FCM strategy can improve the production of sturgeons with surrogate broodstock and further the analysis of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of sturgeon germ cell development.

scholarly journals Intercalated Cell Subtypes in Connecting Tubule and Cortical Collecting Duct of Rat and Mouse

1999 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-12 ◽  
Author(s):  
JIN KIM ◽  
YOUNG-HEE KIM ◽  
JUNG-HO CHA ◽  
C. CRAIG TISHER ◽  
KIRSTEN M. MADSEN
Keyword(s):  
Plasma Membrane ◽  
B Cells ◽  
Collecting Duct ◽  
Type A ◽  
Band 3 ◽  
Intercalated Cells ◽  
Cortical Collecting Duct ◽  
Type B ◽  
Intercalated Cell ◽  
Basolateral Plasma Membrane

Abstract. At least two populations of intercalated cells, type A and type B, exist in the connecting tubule (CNT), initial collecting tubule (ICT), and cortical collecting duct (CCD). Type A intercalated cells secrete protons via an apical H+ - ATPase and reabsorb bicarbonate by a band 3-like Cl-/HCO3- exchanger, AE1, located in the basolateral plasma membrane. Type B intercalated cells secrete bicarbonate by an apical Cl-/HCO3- exchanger that is distinct from AE1 and remains to be identified. They express H+ -ATPase in the basolateral plasma membrane and in vesicles throughout the cytoplasm. A third type of intercalated cell with apical H+ -ATPase, but no AE1, has been described in the CNT and CCD of both rat and mouse. The prevalence of the third cell type is not known. The aim of this study was to characterize and quantify intercalated cell subtypes, including the newly described third non A-non B cell, in the CNT, ICT, and CCD of the rat and mouse. A triple immunolabeling procedure was developed in which antibodies to H+ -ATPase and band 3 protein were used to identify subpopulations of intercalated cells, and segment-specific antibodies were used to identify distal tubule and collecting duct segments. In both rat and mouse, intercalated cells constituted approximately 40% of the cells in the CNT, ICT, and CCD. Type A, type B, and non A-non B intercalated cells were observed in all of the three segments, with type A cells being the most prevalent in both species. In the mouse, however, non A-non B cells constituted more than half of the intercalated cells in the CNT, 39% in the ICT, and 22% in the CCD, compared with 14, 7, and 5%, respectively, in the rat. In contrast, type B intercalated cells accounted for only 8 to 16% of the intercalated cells in the three segments in the mouse compared with 26 to 39% in the rat. It is concluded that striking differences exist in the prevalence and distribution of the different types of intercalated cells in the CNT, ICT, and CCD of rat and mouse. In the rat, the non A-non B cells are fairly rare, whereas in the mouse, they constitute a major fraction of the intercalated cells, primarily at the expense of the type B intercalated cells.

Expression of Toll-like Receptors and Their Signaling Pathways in Rheumatoid Synovitis

2011 ◽  
Vol 38 (5) ◽  
pp. 810-820 ◽  
Author(s):  
YASUNOBU TAMAKI ◽  
YUYA TAKAKUBO ◽  
TOMOYUKI HIRAYAMA ◽  
YRJÖ T. KONTTINEN ◽  
STUART B. GOODMAN ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
B Cells ◽  
Messenger Rna ◽  
Inflammatory Cells ◽  
Type A ◽  
Primary Response ◽  
Type B ◽  
Toll Like Receptors ◽  
Tir Domain ◽  
Cellular Markers ◽  
Molecular Patterns

Objective.Toll-like receptors (TLR) recognizing endogenous and exogenous danger signals could play a role in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Our aim was to describe the presence, localization, and extent of expression of TLR and their adapters.Methods.TLR 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 9 receptors, and myeloid differentiation primary response protein 88, Toll/interleukin receptor (TIR) domain-containing adapter protein MyD88 adapter-like, and TIR domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon/TIR-containing adapter molecule-1 adapters were analyzed in RA (n = 10) and osteoarthritis (OA; n = 5) samples using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Their colocalization with cellular markers CD68, CD15, CD3, CD4, CD8, CD20, dendritic cell lysosomal-associated membrane protein (DC-LAMP), CD123, and 5B5 was analyzed in double immunofluorescence staining.Results.In RA, ß-actin standardized messenger RNA of TLR 2, 3, and 9 (p < 0.001) were particularly high. TLR 5 and 6 were also elevated (p < 0.05), but TLR 1 and 4 and adapters did not differ between RA and OA. In double-staining, TLR and adapters were strongly labeled in myeloid and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (DC), moderately in CD68+ type A lining cells/macrophages, and weakly to moderately in 5B5+ type B lining cells/fibroblasts. CD3+/CD4+ and CD3+/CD8+ T cells and CD20+ B cells in perivenular areas and in lymphoid follicles were moderately TLR- and weakly adapter-positive. In OA, TLR and adapters were weakly immunolabeled in vascular, lining, and inflammatory cells.Conclusion.RA synovium showed abundant expression of TLR. RA synovitis tissue seems to be responsive to TLR ligands. DC, type A cells/macrophages, and type B cells/fibroblasts are, in that order from highest to lowest, equipped with TLR, suggesting a hierarchical responsiveness. In RA, danger-associated molecular patterns to TLR interactions may particularly drive DC to autoinflammatory and autoimmune cascades/synovitis.

DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF CYCLIC AMP ON DNA SYNTHESIS BY GERM CELLS AND NON-GERM CELLS IN MOUSE TESTICULAR CULTURE

1981 ◽  
Vol 89 (2) ◽  
pp. 257-NP ◽  
Author(s):  
YOSHITAKE NISHIMUNE ◽  
TATSUJI HANEJI ◽  
SHIRO AIZAWA
Keyword(s):  
Cyclic Amp ◽  
Dna Synthesis ◽  
Germ Cells ◽  
Type A ◽  
Dibutyryl Cyclic Amp ◽  
Differential Effects ◽  
Low Concentration ◽  
Type A Spermatogonia

The effect of dibutyryl cyclic AMP (dbcAMP) on DNA synthesis in mouse cryptorchid explants with only type A spermatogonia was examined in vitro. Low concentration of dbcAMP (0·08 mmol/l) stimulated DNA synthesis by germ cells but inhibited that by non-germ cells.

scholarly journals Single-Cell Profiling Reveals Distinct Tumor Subtypes and Their Associated T-Cell Environments in Follicular Lymphoma

Blood ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 132 (Supplement 1) ◽  
pp. 1577-1577
Author(s):  
Xuehai Wang ◽  
Deanne Gracias ◽  
Michael Nissen ◽  
Elizabeth Chavez ◽  
Gabriela Cristina Segat ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
T Cell ◽  
B Cells ◽  
Follicular Lymphoma ◽  
B Cell ◽  
Single Cell ◽  
Research Funding ◽  
Type A ◽  
Cell Populations ◽  
Type B ◽  
Tumor Subtypes

Abstract Follicular lymphoma (FL) is an indolent, but incurable malignancy as most patients eventually experience progressive disease. We hypothesized that clonal heterogeneity and patient-specific immune responses would contribute to variable clinical outcomes and that understanding the complexity of the entire tumor "ecosystem" would allow us to better match patients with specific types of tumor- and immune-targeted therapies. In this study, we performed 38-dimensional single-cell phenotyping by mass cytometry (CyTOF) to simultaneously characterize both the substructure of malignant B cell populations as well as the T cell microenvironment in a cohort of 77 diagnostic patient FL biopsies and 35 benign reactive LN (rLN) biopsies. We first applied the t-distributed Stochastic Neighbour Embedding (t-SNE) algorithm to explore intra- and inter- tumoral heterogeneity among malignant B cell populations. t-SNE mapping of individual samples showed that more than a third of FL samples contain at least two phenotypically distinct tumor subpopulations, supporting the notion of multi-clonal tumor architectures presumably due to ongoing clonal evolution. Batched analysis combining all 77 FL cases together with 35 rLN samples revealed two distinct tumor subtypes comprising about 25% (type "A") and 10% (type "B") of total FL samples, respectively, with individual tumors within each subtype showing highly similar and partially overlapping phenotypes. Mapping the same data using Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP), a dimensional reduction algorithm similar to t-SNE but preserves global structure more accurately, revealed that type A tumors localized in close proximity to normal germinal center (GC) B cells, thus fulfilling conventional expectations as to the histogenesis of FL. In contrast, type B tumors localized more closely to pre-GC B cells, implying the existence of an alternate histogenic path in FL. Importantly, we also performed single-cell RNA-Seq on a subset of FL cases which independently confirmed the type A vs type B distinction in whole transcriptomic space. We next analyzed matching T cell data using a modified Statistical Scaffold algorithm in order to place distinct subsets in context with conventionally defined normal T cell populations. Clustering analysis using multi-layer phenograph performed on T cells from all FL and rLN samples combined yielded hundreds of small, but phenotypically distinct populations that were then annotated according to the nearest conventionally defined T cell subset. These imputed designations were used as features to perform hierarchical clustering of samples which revealed 3 major clusters. Cluster1 was characterized by mostly naive T cell populations and contained the majority of rLN samples. Cluster2 was characterized by more differentiated effector T cell populations and was dominated by FL samples. Samples within Cluster2 could be further divided into Tfh, Treg and Th1-rich subgroups. Cluster3 was characterized by a diverse T cell environment including naive, memory and differentiated effector subsets and contained a mixture of rLN and FL samples. Integrative analysis correlating B- and T- cell features revealed type B FL tumors were associated with a Tfh-rich immune landscape. Taken together, these data reveal pervasive phenotypic heterogeneity in both malignant and immune cell compartments of patient FL samples and suggest that defining tumoral subtypes as well as the status of the local immune response within individual samples will support more refined diagnostic classification and highlight functional interactions most amenable to therapeutic targeting. Disclosures Gascoyne: NanoString: Patents & Royalties: Named Inventor on a patent licensed to NanoString Technologies. Scott:Celgene: Consultancy, Honoraria; Roche: Research Funding; NanoString: Patents & Royalties: Named Inventor on a patent licensed to NanoString Technologies, Research Funding; Janssen: Research Funding. Steidl:Juno Therapeutics: Consultancy; Seattle Genetics: Consultancy; Nanostring: Patents & Royalties: patent holding; Bristol-Myers Squibb: Research Funding; Tioma: Research Funding; Roche: Consultancy.

Role of c-kit in mouse spermatogenesis: identification of spermatogonia as a specific site of c-kit expression and function

Development ◽  
1991 ◽  
Vol 113 (2) ◽  
pp. 689-699 ◽  
Author(s):  
K. Yoshinaga ◽  
S. Nishikawa ◽  
M. Ogawa ◽  
S. Hayashi ◽  
T. Kunisada ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Germ Cells ◽  
Primordial Germ Cells ◽  
Cell Lineage ◽  
Type A ◽  
Tyrosine Kinase Receptor ◽  
Postnatal Life ◽  
Adult Mice ◽  
Undifferentiated Type ◽  
Type A Spermatogonia

Recent studies have shown that the dominant white spotting (W) locus encodes the proto-oncogene c-kit, a member of the tyrosine kinase receptor family. One symptom of mice bearing mutation within this gene is sterility due to developmental failure of the primordial germ cells during early embryogenesis. To elucidate the role of the c-kit in gametogenesis, we used an anti-c-kit monoclonal antibody, ACK2, as an antagonistic blocker for c-kit function to interfere with the development of male and female germ cells during postnatal life. ACK2 enabled us to detect the expression of c-kit in the gonadal tissue and also to determine the functional status of c-kit, which is expressed on the surface of a particular cell lineage. Consistent with our immunohistochemical findings, the intravenous injection of ACK2 into adult mice caused a depletion in the differentiating type A spermatogonia from the testis during 24–36 h, while the undifferentiated type A spermatogonia were basically unaffected. Intraperitoneal injections of ACK2 into prepuberal mice could completely block the mitosis of mature (differentiating) type A spermatogonia, but not the mitosis of the gonocytes and primitive type A spermatogonia, or the meiosis of spermatocytes. Our results indicate that the survival and/or proliferation of the differentiating type A spermatogonia requires c-kit, but the primitive (undifferentiated) type A spermatogonia or spermatogenic stem cells are independent from c-kit. Moreover, the antibody administration had no significant effect on oocyte maturation despite its intense expression of c-kit.

Synaptic organization of two types of amacrine cells with CRF-like immunoreactivity in the turtle retina

1991 ◽  
Vol 6 (3) ◽  
pp. 257-269 ◽  
Author(s):  
Douglas E. Williamson ◽  
William D. Eldred
Keyword(s):  
B Cells ◽  
Plexiform Layer ◽  
Amacrine Cells ◽  
Type A ◽  
Inner Plexiform Layer ◽  
Synaptic Organization ◽  
Type B ◽  
Synaptic Contacts ◽  
A Cells ◽  
Visual Streak

AbstractThe ultrastructural features and synaptic contacts of two amacrine cell types with corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in the turtle retina were examined using electron immunocytochemistry. Type A cells were found only in the visual streak and had elongated dendritic arborizations that ran parallel to the visual streak. These cells arborized primarily in stratum 1 and near the border of strata 2 and 3 of the inner plexiform layer, with some processes extending into stratum 5. Type B cells were found only ventral to the visual streak and arborized primarily in a wide band in strata 4 and 5, with sparse dendritic arborizations in stratum 1.There was a diffuse cytoplasmic reaction product within each cell type; however, large labeled vesicles were rarely observed. Type A amacrine cells received many conventional synaptic contacts from amacrine cells in stratum 1 and at the border of strata 2 and 3, but only a small number of contacts in stratum 5. Bipolar synaptic contacts onto type A amacrine cells were observed in strata 1 and at the border of strata 2 and 3. The only positively identified synaptic outputs of type A cells were conventional synapses onto amacrine cells in strata 1 and at the border of 2 and 3. Type B amacrine cells received synaptic contacts from amacrine cells in strata 1 and 5, and bipolar cell synaptic input in stratum 5. They made conventional synapses onto amacrine cells in strata 1 and 5, and onto bipolar cells in stratum 5. We also found conventional synaptic contacts between unlabeled amacrine cells and type B amacrine cells outside of the primary layers of stratification. In addition, there were specialized junctions observed between type A cell profiles in stratum 1 and between type B cell profiles in stratum 5. The unique regional distributions of the type A and B cells, as well as their differences in synaptic connectivity, suggested that these amacrine cells play distinct physiological roles although they contain the same neuropeptide.

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