scholarly journals The Interval-Based Physiological and Mechanical Demands of Cross-Country Ski Training

2019 ◽  
Vol 14 (10) ◽  
pp. 1371-1377 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pål Haugnes ◽  
Jan Kocbach ◽  
Harri Luchsinger ◽  
Gertjan Ettema ◽  
Øyvind Sandbakk
Keyword(s):  
Endurance Training ◽  
Perceived Exertion ◽  
Satellite System ◽  
Work Rate ◽  
Rating Of Perceived Exertion ◽  
External Work ◽  
Flat Terrain ◽  
Metabolic Intensity ◽  
Cross Country ◽  
Global Navigation Satellite

Purpose: To investigate fluctuations in speed, work rate, and heart rate (HR) when cross-country ski skating across varying terrains at different endurance-training intensities. Methods: Seven male junior Norwegian skiers performed maximal-speed (Vmax) tests in both flat and uphill terrains. Thereafter, 5-km sessions at low (LIT), moderate (MIT), and high intensity (HIT) were performed based on their own perception of intensity while monitored by a global navigation satellite system with integrated barometry and accompanying HR monitor. Results: Speed, HR, and rating of perceived exertion gradually increased from LIT to MIT and HIT, both for the total course and in flat and uphill terrains (all P < .05). Uphill work rates (214 [24] W, 298 [27] W, and 350 [54] W for LIT, MIT, and HIT, respectively) and the corresponding percentage of maximal HR (79.2% [6.1]%, 88.3% [2.4]%, and 91.0% [1.7]%) were higher than in flat terrain (159 [16] W, 206 [19] W, and 233 [72] W vs 72.3% [6.3]%, 83.2% [2.3]%, and 87.4% [2.0]% for LIT, MIT, and HIT, respectively) (all P < .01). In general, ∼13% point lower utilization of maximal work rate was reached in uphill than in flat terrain at all intensities (all P < .01). Conclusions: Cross-country ski training across varying terrains is clearly interval based in terms of speed, external work rate, and metabolic intensity for all endurance-training intensities. Although work rate and HR were highest in uphill terrain at all intensities, the utilization of maximal work rate was higher in flat terrain. This demonstrates the large potential for generating external work rate when uphill skiing and the corresponding downregulation of effort due to the metabolic limitations.

scholarly journals Comparison of Physiological and Biomechanical Responses to Flat and Uphill Cross-Country Sit-Skiing in Able-Bodied Athletes

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-7
Author(s):  
Camilla H. Carlsen ◽  
David McGhie ◽  
Julia K. Baumgart ◽  
Øyvind Sandbakk
Keyword(s):  
Oxygen Uptake ◽  
Perceived Exertion ◽  
Peak Oxygen Uptake ◽  
Work Rate ◽  
Rating Of Perceived Exertion ◽  
Physiological Variables ◽  
Gross Efficiency ◽  
Biomechanical Responses ◽  
Submaximal Work ◽  
Cross Country

Purpose: To compare peak work rate (WRpeak) and associated physiological and biomechanical performance-determining variables between flat and uphill cross-country (XC) sit-skiing. Methods: Fifteen able-bodied male XC skiers completed 2 test sessions, each comprising four 4-minute submaximal stages, followed by an incremental test to exhaustion and a verification test in a sit-ski on a roller-ski treadmill. The test sessions were counterbalanced by the incline, being either 0.5% (FLAT) or 5% (UPHILL). The authors compared WRpeak and peak oxygen uptake, as well as physiological variables, rating of perceived exertion, gross efficiency, and cycle characteristics at identical submaximal work rate, between FLAT and UPHILL. Results: In UPHILL, WRpeak was 35% higher compared to FLAT (P < .001), despite no difference in peak oxygen uptake (P = .9). The higher WRpeak in UPHILL was achieved through more work per cycle, which was enabled by the twice as long poling time, compared to FLAT (P < .001). Submaximal gross efficiency was 0.5 to 2 percentage points lower in FLAT compared to UPHILL (P < .001), with an increasing difference as work rate increased (P < .001). Neither cycle rate nor work per cycle differed between inclines when compared at identical submaximal work rate (P > .16). Conclusions: The longer poling times utilized in uphill XC sit-skiing enable more work per cycle and better gross efficiency, thereby allowing skiers to achieve a higher WRpeak compared to flat XC sit-skiing. However, the similar values of peak oxygen uptake between inclines indicate that XC sit-skiers can tax their cardiorespiratory capacity similarly in both conditions.

scholarly journals Pole Length’s Influence on Performance During Classic-Style Snow Skiing in Well-Trained Cross-Country Skiers

2020 ◽  
Vol 15 (6) ◽  
pp. 884-891
Author(s):  
Erik Trøen ◽  
Bjarne Rud ◽  
Øyvind Karlsson ◽  
Camilla Høivik Carlsen ◽  
Matthias Gilgien ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Heart Rate ◽  
Perceived Exertion ◽  
Body Height ◽  
Time Trial ◽  
Rating Of Perceived Exertion ◽  
Flat Terrain ◽  
Double Poling ◽  
Cross Country ◽  
Improved Performance ◽  
Maximal Effort

Purpose: To investigate how self-selected pole length (PL) of ∼84% (PL84%) compared with ∼90% (PL90%) of body height influenced performance during a 700-m time trial with undulating terrain on snow. Methods: Twenty-one cross-country skiers, 7 of whom were women, performed 4 trials at a maximal effort in a counterbalanced fashion with PL84% and PL90% separated by 20-minute breaks between trials. In trials I and II, only double poling was allowed, while in trials III and IV, skiers used self-selected classical subtechniques. Continuous speed, cyclic parameters, and heart rate were collected using microsensors in addition to a post-time-trial rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Results: The 700-m times with only double poling were significantly shorter with PL90% than PL84% (mean ± 95% confidence limits –1.6% ± 1.0%). Segment analyses showed higher speed with PL90% in uphill sections than with PL84% (3.7% ± 2.1%), with the greatest difference found for the female skiers (5.6% ± 2.9%). In contrast, on flat terrain at high skiing speeds, speed was reduced with PL90% compared with PL84% (–1.5% ± 1.4%); this was only significant for the male skiers. During free choice of classical subtechniques, PL did not influence performance in any segments, choice of subtechnique, or cycle rate during the trials. No differences in rating of perceived exertion or heart rate between PLs were found. Conclusions: PL90% improved performance in uphills at low speeds when using double poling but hindered performance on flat terrain and at higher speeds compared with self-selected PLs. Choice of PL should, therefore, be based on racecourse topography, preferred subtechniques, and the skier’s physiological and technical abilities.

scholarly journals Physiological responses and cycle characteristics during double-poling versus diagonal-stride roller-skiing in junior cross-country skiers

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Erik P. Andersson ◽  
Irina Hämberg ◽  
Paulo Cesar Do Nascimento Salvador ◽  
Kerry McGawley
Keyword(s):  
Oxygen Uptake ◽  
Perceived Exertion ◽  
Lactate Concentration ◽  
Blood Lactate Concentration ◽  
Peak Oxygen Uptake ◽  
Submaximal Exercise ◽  
Rating Of Perceived Exertion ◽  
Time To Exhaustion ◽  
Double Poling ◽  
Cross Country

Abstract Purpose This study aimed to compare physiological factors and cycle characteristics during cross-country (XC) roller-skiing at matched inclines and speeds using the double-poling (DP) and diagonal-stride (DS) sub-techniques in junior female and male XC skiers. Methods Twenty-three well-trained junior XC skiers (11 women, 12 men; age 18.2 ± 1.2 yr.) completed two treadmill roller-skiing tests in a randomized order using either DP or DS. The exercise protocols were identical and included a 5 min warm-up, 4 × 5 min submaximal stages, and an incremental test to exhaustion, all performed at a 5° incline. Results No significant three-way interactions were observed between sex, submaximal exercise intensity, and sub-technique. For the pooled sample, higher values were observed for DP versus DS during submaximal exercise for the mean oxygen uptake kinetics response time (33%), energy cost (18%), heart rate (HR) (9%), blood lactate concentration (5.1 versus 2.1 mmol·L−1), rating of perceived exertion (12%), and cycle rate (25%), while cycle length was lower (19%) (all P < 0.001). During the time-to-exhaustion (TTE) test, peak oxygen uptake ($$\dot{V}$$ V ˙ O2peak), peak HR, and peak oxygen pulse were 8%, 2%, and 6% lower, respectively, for DP than DS, with a 29% shorter TTE during DP (pooled data, all P < 0.001). Conclusion In well-trained junior XC skiers, DP was found to exert a greater physiological load than DS during uphill XC roller-skiing at submaximal intensities. During the TTE test, both female and male athletes were able to ski for longer and reached markedly higher $$\dot{V}$$ V ˙ O2peak values when using DS compared to DP.

scholarly journals Cross-Country Skiing Analysis and Ski Technique Detection by High-Precision Kinematic Global Navigation Satellite System

Sensors ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 19 (22) ◽  
pp. 4947
Author(s):  
Masaki Takeda ◽  
Naoto Miyamoto ◽  
Takaaki Endo ◽  
Olli Ohtonen ◽  
Stefan Lindinger ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
High Precision ◽  
Time Trial ◽  
Satellite System ◽  
Head Motion ◽  
Head Displacement ◽  
Cross Country Skiing ◽  
Cross Country ◽  
Classical Style ◽  
Number Of Cycles ◽  
Global Navigation Satellite

Cross-country skiing (XCS) embraces a broad variety of techniques applied like a gear system according to external conditions, slope topography, and skier-related factors. The continuous detection of applied skiing techniques and cycle characteristics by application of unobtrusive sensor technology can provide useful information to enhance the quality of training and competition. (1) Background: We evaluated the possibility of using a high-precision kinematic global navigation satellite system (GNSS) to detect cross-country skiing classical style technique. (2) Methods: A world-class male XC skier was analyzed during a classical style 5.3-km time trial recorded with a high-precision kinematic GNSS attached to the skier’s head. A video camera was mounted on the lumbar region of the skier to detect the type and number of cycles of each technique used during the entire time trial. Based on the GNSS trajectory, distinct patterns of head displacement (up-down head motion) for each classical technique (e.g., diagonal stride (DIA), double poling (DP), kick double poling (KDP), herringbone (HB), and downhill) were defined. The applied skiing technique, skiing duration, skiing distance, skiing speed, and cycle time within a technique and the number of cycles were visually analyzed using both the GNSS signal and the video data by independent persons. Distinct patterns for each technique were counted by two methods: Head displacement with course inclination and without course inclination (net up-down head motion). (3) Results: Within the time trial, 49.6% (6 min, 46 s) was DP, 18.7% (2 min, 33 s) DIA, 6.1% (50 s) KDP, 3.3% (27 s) HB, and 22.3% (3 min, 03 s) downhill with respect to total skiing time (13 min, 09 s). The %Match for both methods 1 and 2 (net head motion) was high: 99.2% and 102.4%, respectively, for DP; 101.7% and 95.9%, respectively, for DIA; 89.4% and 100.0%, respectively, for KDP; 86.0% and 96.5%, respectively, in HB; and 98.6% and 99.6%, respectively, in total. (4) Conclusions: Based on the results of our study, it is suggested that a high-precision kinematic GNSS can be applied for precise detection of the type of technique, and the number of cycles used, duration, skiing speed, skiing distance, and cycle time for each technique, during a classical style XCS race.

scholarly journals Effects of almond, dried grape and dried cranberry consumption on endurance exercise performance, recovery and psychomotor speed: protocol of a randomised controlled trial

2019 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
pp. e000560 ◽  
Author(s):  
Noah Marc Adrian d'Unienville ◽  
Alison Hill ◽  
Alison Coates ◽  
Catherine Yandell ◽  
Max Nelson ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Heart Rate ◽  
Endurance Training ◽  
Endurance Exercise ◽  
Exercise Performance ◽  
Perceived Exertion ◽  
Well Being ◽  
Rating Of Perceived Exertion ◽  
Snack Food ◽  
Psychomotor Speed ◽  
Performance Recovery

BackgroundFoods rich in nutrients, such as nitrate, nitrite, L-arginine and polyphenols, can promote the synthesis of nitric oxide (NO), which may induce ergogenic effects on endurance exercise performance. Thus, consuming foods rich in these components, such as almonds, dried grapes and dried cranberries (AGC), may improve athletic performance. Additionally, the antioxidant properties of these foods may reduce oxidative damage induced by intense exercise, thus improving recovery and reducing fatigue from strenuous physical training. Improvements in NO synthesis may also promote cerebral blood flow, which may improve cognitive function.Methods and analysisNinety-six trained male cyclists or triathletes will be randomised to consume ~2550 kJ of either a mixture of AGC or a comparator snack food (oat bar) for 4 weeks during an overreaching endurance training protocol comprised of a 2-week heavy training phase, followed by a 2-week taper. The primary outcome is endurance exercise performance (5 min time-trial performance) and secondary outcomes include markers of NO synthesis (plasma and urinary nitrites and nitrates), muscle damage (serum creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase), oxidative stress (F2-isoprostanes), endurance exercise function (exercise efficiency, submaximal oxygen consumption and substrate utilisation), markers of internal training load (subjective well-being, rating of perceived exertion, maximal rate of heart rate increase and peak heart rate) and psychomotor speed (choice reaction time).ConclusionThis study will evaluate whether consuming AGC improves endurance exercise performance, recovery and psychomotor speed across an endurance training programme, and evaluate the mechanisms responsible for any improvement.Trial registration numberACTRN12618000360213.

Influence of crank rate on the slow component of pulmonary O2 uptake during heavy arm-crank exercise

2006 ◽  
Vol 31 (3) ◽  
pp. 292-301 ◽  
Author(s):  
Paul M Smith ◽  
Eilidh McCrindle ◽  
Mike Doherty ◽  
Michael J Price ◽  
Andrew M Jones
Keyword(s):  
Oxygen Uptake ◽  
Peak Power ◽  
Slow Component ◽  
Work Rate ◽  
Rating Of Perceived Exertion ◽  
Muscle Fibres ◽  
External Work ◽  
Tension Development ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
The Mean

The principal aim of this study was to examine the influence of variations in crank rate on the slow component of the pulmonary oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text]O2) response to heavy-intensity arm-crank ergometry (ACE). We hypothesized that, for the same external work rate, a higher crank rate would elicit a greater amplitude of the [Formula: see text]O2 "slow component". Eleven healthy males (mean (± SD) age, 25 (±6) y; body mass, 89.1 (±10.7) kg; ACE [Formula: see text]O2 peak, 3.36 (±0.47) L·min-1) volunteered to participate. The subjects initially completed an incremental exercise test for the determination of [Formula: see text]O2 peak and peak power on an electrically braked arm ergometer. Subsequently, they completed "step" transitions from an unloaded baseline to a work rate requiring 70% of peak power: 2 at a crank rate of 50 r·min-1 (LO) and 2 at a crank rate of 90 r·min-1 (HI). Pulmonary gas exchange was measured on a breath-by-breath basis and [Formula: see text]O2 kinetics were evaluated from the mean response to each condition using non-linear regression techniques. In contradiction to our hypothesis, the [Formula: see text]O2 slow component was significantly greater at 50 r·min-1 than at 90 r·min-1 (LO: 0.60 ± 0.30 vs. HI: 0.47 ± 0.21 L·min-1; p < 0.05). The mean value for the localized rating of perceived exertion was also higher at 50 r·min-1 than at 90 r·min-1 (LO: 16.7 ± 1.4 vs. HI: 15.2 ± 1.3; p < 0.05), but there was no significant difference in end-exercise blood lactate concentration. It is possible that differences in muscle tension development and blood flow resulted in a greater contribution of "low-efficiency" type II muscle fibres to force production at the lower crank rate in ACE, and that this was linked to the greater [Formula: see text]O2 slow component. However, other factors such as greater isometric contraction of the muscles of the trunk and legs at the lower crank rate might also be implicated.Key words: O2 kinetics, [Formula: see text]O2 slow component, fibre recruitment, oxygen uptake.

The Velocity and Energy Profiles of Elite Cross-Country Skiers Executing Downhill Turns With Different Radii

2014 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
pp. 41-47 ◽  
Author(s):  
Øyvind Sandbakk ◽  
Silvana Bucher Sandbakk ◽  
Matej Supej ◽  
Hans-Christer Holmberg
Keyword(s):  
Lower Energy ◽  
Satellite System ◽  
Energy Characteristics ◽  
Energy Profiles ◽  
Single Turn ◽  
Turn Radius ◽  
Cross Country Skiing ◽  
Cross Country ◽  
Global Navigation Satellite

This study examined the influence of turn radius on velocity and energy profiles when skidding and step turning during more and less effective downhill turns while cross-country skiing. Thirteen elite female cross-country skiers performed single turns with a 9- or 12-m radius using the skidding technique and a 12- or 15-m radius with step turning. Mechanical parameters were monitored using a real-time kinematic Global Navigation Satellite System and video analysis. Step turning was more effective during all phases of a turn, leading to higher velocities than skidding (P < .05). With both techniques, a greater radius was associated with higher velocity (P < .05), but the quality of turning, as assessed on the basis of energy characteristics, was the same. More effective skidding turns involved more pronounced deceleration early in the turn and maintenance of higher velocity thereafter, while more effective step turning involved lower energy dissipation during the latter half of the turn. In conclusion, the single-turn analysis employed here reveals differences in the various techniques chosen by elite cross-country skiers when executing downhill turns of varying radii and can be used to assess the quality of such turns.

scholarly journals Upper- vs. Lower-Body Exercise Performance in Female and Male Cross-Country Skiers

2021 ◽  
Vol 3 ◽  
Author(s):  
Linda Marie Hansen ◽  
Øyvind Sandbakk ◽  
Gertjan Ettema ◽  
Julia Kathrin Baumgart
Keyword(s):  
Oxygen Uptake ◽  
Perceived Exertion ◽  
Physiological Responses ◽  
Peak Oxygen Uptake ◽  
Rating Of Perceived Exertion ◽  
Upper Body ◽  
Endurance Capacity ◽  
Lower Body ◽  
Exercise Modality ◽  
Cross Country

Purpose: To investigate the interaction between exercise modality (i.e., upper- and lower-body exercise) and sex in physiological responses and power output (PO) across the entire intensity spectrum (i.e., from low to maximal intensity).Methods: Ten male and 10 female cross-country (XC) skiers performed a stepwise incremental test to exhaustion consisting of 5 min stages with increasing workload employing upper-body poling (UP) and running (RUN) on two separate days. Mixed measures ANOVA were performed to investigate the interactions between exercise modalities (i.e., UP and RUN) and sex in physiological responses and PO across the entire exercise intensity spectrum.Results: The difference between UP and RUN (ΔUP−RUN), was not different in the female compared with the male XC skiers for peak oxygen uptake (18 ± 6 vs. 18 ± 6 mL·kg−1·min−1, p = 0.843) and peak PO (84 ± 18 vs. 91 ± 22 W, p = 0.207). At most given blood lactate and rating of perceived exertion values, ΔUP−RUN was larger in the male compared with the female skiers for oxygen uptake and PO, but these differences disappeared when the responses were expressed as % of the modality-specific peak.Conclusion: Modality-differences (i.e., ΔUP−RUN) in peak physiological responses and PO did not differ between the female and male XC skiers. This indicates that increased focus on upper-body strength and endurance training in female skiers in recent years may have closed the gap between upper- and lower-body endurance capacity compared with male XC skiers. In addition, no sex-related considerations need to be made when using relative physiological responses for intensity regulation within a specific exercise modality.

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