Engine-Control Impact on Energy Balances for Two-Stroke Engines for 10–25 kg Remotely Piloted Aircraft

2018 ◽  
Vol 140 (11) ◽  
Author(s):  
Joseph K. Ausserer ◽  
Marc D. Polanka ◽  
Paul J. Litke ◽  
Jacob A. Baranski
Keyword(s):  
Conversion Efficiency ◽  
Equivalence Ratio ◽  
Internal Combustion Engines ◽  
Rapid Expansion ◽  
Combustion Stability ◽  
Fuel Conversion ◽  
Absolute Increase ◽  
Spark Timing ◽  
Remotely Piloted Aircraft ◽  
Energy Pathways

The rapid expansion of the market for remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) includes a particular interest in 10–25 kg vehicles for monitoring, surveillance, and reconnaissance. Power-plant options for these aircraft are often 10–100 cm3 internal combustion engines (ICEs). The present study builds on a previous study of loss pathways for small, two-stroke engines by quantifying the trade space among energy pathways, combustion stability, and engine controls. The same energy pathways are considered in both studies—brake power, heat transfer from the cylinder, short circuiting, sensible exhaust enthalpy, and incomplete combustion. The engine controls considered in the present study are speed, equivalence ratio, combustion phasing (ignition timing), cooling-air flow rate, and throttle. Several options are identified for improving commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS)-engine efficiency and performance for small, RPA. Shifting from typical operation at an equivalence ratio of 1.1–1.2 to lean operation at an equivalence ratio of 0.8–0.9 results in a 4% (absolute) increase in fuel-conversion efficiency at the expense of a 10% decrease in power. The stock, linear timing maps are excessively retarded below 3000 rpm, and replacing them with custom spark timing improves ease of engine start. Finally, in comparison with conventional-size engines, the fuel-conversion efficiency of the small, two-stroke ICEs improves at throttled conditions by as much as 4–6% (absolute) due primarily to decreased short-circuiting. When no additional short-circuiting mitigation techniques are employed, running a larger engine at partial throttle may lead to an overall weight savings on longer missions. A case study shows that at 6000 rpm, the 3W-55i engine at partial throttle will yield an overall weight saving compared to the 3W-28i engine at wide-open throttle (WOT) for missions exceeding 2.5 h (at a savings of ∼5 g/min).

Experimental Investigation of Fuel Anti-Knock-Index Requirements in Three Small Two-Stroke Engines for Remotely Piloted Aircraft

2019 ◽  
Vol 141 (5) ◽  
Author(s):  
Joseph K. Ausserer ◽  
Marc D. Polanka ◽  
Paul J. Litke ◽  
Jacob A. Baranski
Keyword(s):  
Power Plants ◽  
Internal Combustion Engines ◽  
Fuel Conversion ◽  
Combustion Heat ◽  
Absolute Increase ◽  
Fuel Switching ◽  
Remotely Piloted Aircraft ◽  
Si Engines ◽  
Commercial Off The Shelf ◽  
Burn Rate

Small remotely piloted aircraft (10–25 kg) that are powered by internal combustion engines typically operate on gasoline with an anti-knock index (AKI) > 80. To comply with the single-battlefield-fuel initiative [Department of Defense (DoD) Directive 4140.25], interest has increased in converting power plants for these platforms to run on low-AKI fuels such as diesel and Jet-A with AKIs of ∼20. It has been speculated that the higher losses (short circuiting, incomplete combustion, heat transfer) that cause these engines to have lower efficiencies than their conventional-scale counterparts may also relax their required fuel AKI. The fuel-AKI requirements of three two-stroke spark ignition (SI) engines with 28, 55, and 85 cm3 displacements were mapped, and the performance was compared to that on 98 ON (octane number) fuel. Switching from 98 ON fuel to 20 ON (Jet-A and diesel equivalent AKI) fuel while maintaining optimum combustion phasing led to a 3–5 crank-angle degree (CAD) reduction in burn angle, a 2–3% increase in power, and a 0.5–1% (absolute) increase in fuel-conversion efficiency at non-knock-limited conditions through shortening of the CA0–CA10 burn angle. The efficiency improvement translates to a 6% increase in range or endurance. The results indicate that abnormal combustion is not a significant obstacle to operating small commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) engines on low-AKI fuels and that most of the power and efficiency improvements demonstrated in previous heavy-fuel conversion efforts were the result of modifications made to accommodate low-volatility fuels, not the faster burn rate of the low-AKI fuels themselves.

The Control Space for Knock Mitigation in Two-Stroke Engines for 10–25 kg Remotely Piloted Aircraft

2019 ◽  
Vol 141 (9) ◽  
Author(s):  
Joseph K. Ausserer ◽  
Marc D. Polanka ◽  
Paul J. Litke ◽  
Jacob A. Baranski
Keyword(s):  
Octane Number ◽  
Equivalence Ratio ◽  
Fuel Injection ◽  
Spark Ignition ◽  
Spark Ignition Engines ◽  
Engine Operation ◽  
Engine Cooling ◽  
Spark Timing ◽  
Remotely Piloted Aircraft ◽  
Cooling Air

Interest is growing in converting commercially available, two-stroke spark-ignition engines from motor gasoline to low-anti-knock-index fuel such as diesel and Jet A, where knock-limited operation is a significant consideration. Previous efforts have examined the knock limits for small two-stroke engines and explored the effect of engine controls such as equivalence ratio, combustion phasing, and cooling on engine operation during knock-free operation on high octane number fuel. This work culminates the research begun in those efforts, investigating the degree of knock-mitigation achievable through varying equivalence ratio, combustion phasing, and engine cooling on three small (28, 55, and 85 cm3 displacement) commercially available two-stroke spark-ignition engines operating on a 20 octane number blend of iso-octane and n-heptane. Combustion phasing had the largest effect; a 10 deg retardation in the CA50 mass-fraction burned angle permitted an increase in throttle that yielded a 9–11% increase in power. Leaning the equivalence ratio from 1.05 to 0.8 resulted in a 10% increase in power; enriching the mixture from 1.05 to 1.35 yielded a 6–7% increase in power but at the cost of a 25% decrease in fuel-conversion efficiency. Varying the flow rate of cooling air over the engines had a minimal effect. The results indicate that the addition of aftermarket variable spark timing and electronic fuel-injection systems offer substantial advantages for converting small, commercially available two-stroke engines to run on low-anti-knock-index fuels.

Experimental Study of Methane Fuel Oxycombustion in a Spark-Ignited Engine

2013 ◽  
Vol 136 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Andrew Van Blarigan ◽  
Darko Kozarac ◽  
Reinhard Seiser ◽  
Robert Cattolica ◽  
Jyh-Yuan Chen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Oxygen Concentration ◽  
Conversion Efficiency ◽  
Compression Ratio ◽  
Peak Performance ◽  
Working Fluid ◽  
Fuel Conversion ◽  
Specific Heats ◽  
Spark Timing ◽  
Performance Conditions ◽  
Gas Recirculation

An experimental investigation of methane fuel oxycombustion in a variable compression ratio, spark-ignited piston engine has been carried out. Compression ratio, spark-timing, and oxygen concentration sweeps were performed to determine peak performance conditions for operation with both wet and dry exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Results illustrate that when operating under oxycombustion conditions an optimum oxygen concentration exists at which fuel-conversion efficiency is maximized. Maximum conversion efficiency was achieved with approximately 29% oxygen by volume in the intake for wet EGR, and approximately 32.5% oxygen by volume in the intake for dry EGR. All test conditions, including air, were able to operate at the engine's maximum compression ratio of 17 to 1 without significant knock limitations. Peak fuel-conversion efficiency under oxycombustion conditions was significantly reduced relative to methane-in-air operation, with wet EGR achieving 23.6%, dry EGR achieving 24.2% and methane-in-air achieving 31.4%. The reduced fuel-conversion efficiency of oxycombustion conditions relative to air was primarily due to the reduced ratio of specific heats of the EGR working fluids relative to nitrogen (air) working fluid.

An Experimental Study of the Combustion Process in a Natural-Gas Spark-Ignition Engine

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jinlong Liu ◽  
Cosmin E. Dumitrescu ◽  
Hemanth Bommisetty
Keyword(s):  
Natural Gas ◽  
Equivalence Ratio ◽  
Internal Combustion Engines ◽  
Combustion Process ◽  
Spark Ignition ◽  
High Energy ◽  
Operating Conditions ◽  
Spark Ignition Engine ◽  
Intake Manifold ◽  
Spark Timing

Abstract The conversion of existing internal combustion engines to natural-gas operation can reduce U.S. dependence on petroleum imports and curtail engine-out emissions. In this study, a diesel engine with a 13.3 compression ratio was modified to natural-gas spark-ignited operation by replacing the original diesel injector with a high-energy spark plug and by fumigating fuel inside the intake manifold. The goal of this research was to investigate the combustion process inside the flat-head and bowl-in-piston chamber of such retrofitted engine when operated at different spark timings, mixture equivalence ratios, and engine speeds. The results indicated that advanced spark timing, a lower equivalence ratio, and a higher speed operation increased the ignition lag and made it more difficult to initiate the combustion process. Further, advanced spark timing, a larger equivalence ratio, and a lower speed operation accelerated the flame propagation process inside the piston bowl and advanced the start of the burn inside the squish. However, such conditions increased the burning duration inside the squish due to more fuel being trapped inside the squish volume and the smaller squish height during combustion. As a result, the end of combustion was almost the same despite the change in the operating conditions. In addition, the reliable ignition, stable combustion, and the lack of knocking showed promise for the application of natural-gas lean-burn spark-ignition operation in the heavy-duty transportation.

Energy Balance and Power Loss Pathway Study of a 120 cc Four-Stroke Internal Combustion Engine

2018 ◽  
Vol 140 (7) ◽  
Author(s):  
Jason R. Blantin ◽  
Marc D. Polanka ◽  
Joseph K. Ausserer ◽  
Paul J. Litke ◽  
Jacob A. Baranski
Keyword(s):  
Internal Combustion Engine ◽  
Conversion Efficiency ◽  
Combustion Engine ◽  
Internal Combustion ◽  
Small Displacement ◽  
Fuel Conversion ◽  
Performance Improvements ◽  
Group 2 ◽  
Stroke Engine ◽  
Energy Pathways

Efforts to improve the range and endurance of group 2 (10–25 kg), internal combustion engine (ICE) powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have been underway for several years at Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL). To obtain the desired performance improvements, research into improving the overall efficiency of the ICE powerplants is of great interest. The high specific energy of hydrocarbon fuels (13,000 W h/kg for gasoline), but low fuel conversion efficiency for small ICEs means that relatively minor improvements in the fuel conversion efficiency of the engines can yield large improvements in range and endurance. Little information is available however for the efficiency of ICEs in the size range of interest (10–200 cm3 displacement volume) for group 2 UAVs. Most of the currently available efficiency data for 10–200 cm3 ICEs is for two-stroke engines. The goal of this study was to provide an in-depth probe of the efficiency and energy losses of a small displacement four-stroke engine which could potentially be used to power a group 2 UAV. Energy balances were performed on a Honda GX120 four-stroke engine using empirical research methods. The engine was a 118 cm3 displacement, single cylinder ICE. Energy pathways were characterized as a percentage of the total chemical energy available in the fuel. Energy pathways were characterized into four categories: brake power, cooling load, exhaust sensible enthalpy and incomplete combustion. The effect of five operating parameters was examined in the study. Fuel conversion efficiency ranged from 22.2% to 25.8% as engine speed was swept from 2000 to 3600 RPM, from 20.8% to 27.3% as equivalence ratio was swept from 0.85 to 1.25, and from 15.7% to 24.9% as throttle was swept from 28.5% to 100%. Combustion phasing and cylinder head temperature sweeps showed only minor changes in fuel conversion efficiency.

Investigating anode off-gas under spark-ignition combustion for SOFC-ICE hybrid systems

2021 ◽  
pp. 146808742110169
Author(s):  
Zhongnan Ran ◽  
Jon Longtin ◽  
Dimitris Assanis
Keyword(s):  
Hybrid Systems ◽  
Conversion Efficiency ◽  
Combustion Engine ◽  
Spark Ignition ◽  
Combustion Efficiency ◽  
Experimental Investigations ◽  
Fuel Conversion ◽  
Generation Plant ◽  
Complementary Role ◽  
Power Generation Plant

Solid oxide fuel cell – internal combustion engine (SOFC-ICE) hybrid systems are an attractive solution for electricity generation. The system can achieve up to 70% theoretical electric power conversion efficiency through energy cascading enabled by utilizing the anode off-gas from the SOFC as the fuel source for the ICE. Experimental investigations were conducted with a single cylinder Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) engine by altering fuel-air equivalence ratio (ϕ), and compression ratio (CR) to study the engine load, combustion characteristics, and emissions levels of dry SOFC anode off-gas consisting of 33.9% H2, 15.6% CO, and 50.5% CO2. The combustion efficiency of the anode off-gas was directly evaluated by measuring the engine-out CO emissions. The highest net-indicated fuel conversion efficiency of 31.3% occurred at ϕ  = 0.90 and CR = 13:1. These results demonstrate that the anode off-gas can be successfully oxidized using a spark ignition combustion mode. The fuel conversion efficiency of the anode tail gas is expected to further increase in a more modern engine architecture that can achieve increased burn rates in comparison to the CFR engine. NOx emissions from the combustion of anode off-gas were minimal as the cylinder peak temperatures never exceeded 1800 K. This experimental study ultimately demonstrates the viability of an ICE to operate using an anode off-gas, thus creating a complementary role for an ICE to be paired with a SOFC in a hybrid power generation plant.

scholarly journals The Effect of Pure Oxygenated Biofuels on Efficiency and Emissions in a Gasoline Optimised DISI Engine

Energies ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 14 (13) ◽  
pp. 3908
Author(s):  
Tara Larsson ◽  
Senthil Krishnan Mahendar ◽  
Anders Christiansen-Erlandsson ◽  
Ulf Olofsson
Keyword(s):  
Internal Combustion Engines ◽  
Negative Impact ◽  
The Other ◽  
Nox Emissions ◽  
Combustion Engines ◽  
Engine Efficiency ◽  
Spark Timing ◽  
Low Load ◽  
Oxygenated Fuels ◽  
Load Conditions

The negative impact of transport on climate has led to incentives to increase the amount of renewable fuels used in internal combustion engines (ICEs). Oxygenated, liquid biofuels are promising alternatives, as they exhibit similar combustion behaviour to gasoline. In this article, the effect of the different biofuels on engine efficiency, combustion propagation and emissions of a gasoline-optimised direct injected spark ignited (DISI) engine were evaluated through engine experiments. The experiments were performed without any engine hardware modifications. The investigated fuels are gasoline, four alcohols (methanol, ethanol, n-butanol and iso-butanol) and one ether (MTBE). All fuels were tested at two speed sweeps at low and mid load conditions, and a spark timing sweep at low load conditions. The oxygenated biofuels exhibit increased efficiencies, even at non-knock-limited conditions. At lower loads, the oxygenated fuels decrease CO, HC and NOx emissions. However, at mid load conditions, decreased volatility of the alcohols leads to increased emissions due to fuel impingement effects. Methanol exhibited the highest efficiencies and significantly increased burn rates compared to the other fuels. Gasoline exhibited the lowest level of PN and PM emissions. N-butanol and iso-butanol show significantly increased levels of particle emissions compared to the other fuels.

An experimental study on optimal spark timing control for improved performance of a flex fuel vehicle engine

2019 ◽  
Vol 234 (5) ◽  
pp. 1294-1303
Author(s):  
Junsang Yoo ◽  
Taeyong Lee ◽  
Pyungsik Go ◽  
Yongseok Cho ◽  
Kwangsoon Choi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Empirical Equation ◽  
Interpolation Method ◽  
Linear Interpolation ◽  
Combustion Characteristics ◽  
Combustion Stability ◽  
Timing Control ◽  
Vehicle Engine ◽  
Spark Timing ◽  
Linear Interpolation Method ◽  
Blended Fuels

In the American continent, the most frequently used alternative fuel is ethanol. Especially in Brazil, various blends of gasoline–ethanol fuels are widely spread. The vehicle using blended fuel is called flexible fuel vehicle. Because of several selections for the blending ratios in gas stations, the fuel properties may vary after refueling depending on a driver’s selection. Also, the combustion characteristics of the flexible fuel vehicle engine may change. In order to respond to the flexible fuel vehicle market in Brazil, a study on blended fuels is performed. The main purpose of this study is to enhance performance of the flexible fuel vehicle engine to target Brazilian market. Therefore, we investigated combustion characteristics and optimal spark timings of the blended fuels with various blending ratios to improve the performance of the flexible fuel vehicle engine. As a tool for prediction of the optimal spark timing for the 1.6L flexible fuel vehicle engine, the empirical equation was suggested. The validity of the equation was investigated by comparing the predicted optimal spark timings with the stock spark timings through engine tests. When the stock spark timings of E0 and E100 were optimal, the empirical equation predicted the actual optimal spark timings for blended fuels with a good accuracy. In all conditions, by optimizing spark timing control, performance was improved. Especially, torque improvements of E30 and E50 fuels were 5.4% and 1.8%, respectively, without affecting combustion stability. From these results, it was concluded that the linear interpolation method is not suitable for flexible fuel vehicle engine control. Instead of linear interpolation method, optimal spark timing which reflects specific octane numbers of gasoline–ethanol blended fuels should be applied to maximize performance of the flexible fuel vehicle engine. The results of this study are expected to save the effort required for engine calibration when developing new flexible fuel vehicle engines and to be used as a basic strategy to improve the performance of other flexible fuel vehicle engines.

MODELING NANOSECOND-PULSED SPARK DISCHARGE AND FLAME KERNEL EVOLUTION

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-22
Author(s):  
Joohan Kim ◽  
Vyaas Gururajan ◽  
Riccardo Scarcelli ◽  
Sayan Biswas ◽  
Isaac Ekoto
Keyword(s):  
Electrical Discharge ◽  
Internal Combustion Engines ◽  
Initial Conditions ◽  
Fuel Mixture ◽  
Spark Ignition ◽  
Combustion Stability ◽  
Flame Kernel ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Challenging Environment ◽  
Kernel Growth

Abstract Dilute combustion, either using exhaust gas recirculation or with excess-air, is considered a promising strategy to improve the thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines. However, the dilute air-fuel mixture, especially under intensified turbulence and high-pressure conditions, poses significant challenges for ignitability and combustion stability, which may limit the attainable efficiency benefits. In-depth knowledge of the flame kernel evolution to stabilize ignition and combustion in a challenging environment is crucial for effective engine development and optimization. To date, comprehensive understanding of ignition processes that result in the development of fully predictive ignition models usable by the automotive industry does not yet exist. Spark-ignition consists of a wide range of physics that includes electrical discharge, plasma evolution, joule-heating of gas, and flame kernel initiation and growth into a self-sustainable flame. In this study, an advanced approach is proposed to model spark-ignition energy deposition and flame kernel growth. To decouple the flame kernel growth from the electrical discharge, a nanosecond pulsed high-voltage discharge is used to trigger spark-ignition in an optically accessible small ignition test vessel with a quiescent mixture of air and methane. Initial conditions for the flame kernel, including its thermodynamic state and species composition, are derived from a plasma-chemical equilibrium calculation. The geometric shape and dimension of the kernel are characterized using a multi-dimensional thermal plasma solver. The proposed modeling approach is evaluated using a high-fidelity computational fluid dynamics procedure to compare the simulated flame kernel evolution against flame boundaries from companion schlieren images.

Development of Coal Partial Gasification and Combustion System

2004 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yaoxin Liu ◽  
Libin Yang ◽  
Mengxiang Fang ◽  
Guanyi Chen ◽  
Zhongyang Luo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Conversion Efficiency ◽  
Pilot Plant ◽  
Sulfur Removal ◽  
Test Facility ◽  
Molar Ratio ◽  
Fuel Conversion ◽  
Heating Value ◽  
Pilot Plant Test ◽  
Plant Test ◽  
Partial Gasification

A new system using combined coal gasification and combustion has been developed for clean and high efficient utilization of coal. Following are the processes. The coal is first partially gasified and the produced fuel gas is then used for industrial purpose or as a fuel for a gas turbine. The char residue from the gasifier is burned in a circulating fluidized bed combustor to generate steam for power generation. For having the experimental investigation, a 1MW pilot plant test facility has been erected. Experiments on coal partial gasification with air, and recycle gas have been made on the 1 MW pilot plant test facility. The results show that, with air as gasification agent, the system can produce 4–5MJ/Nm3 low heating value dry gas and fuel conversion efficiency attains 50–70% in the gasifier, and residue 20–40% converted in the combustor and total conversion efficiency in the system is over 90%. In the gasifier, the carbon conversion efficiency increases with the bed temperature and the air blown temperature. CaCO3 has an effective effect for sulfur removal in the gasifier. The sulfur removal efficiency attains 85% with Ca/S molar ratio 2.5. The system can produce 12–14MJ/Nm3 middle heating value day gas by using high temperature circulation solid as heat carrier and recycle gas or steam as gasification media, but the fuel conversion efficiency only attain 30–40% in the gasifier and most of fuel energy is converted in the combustor. CaCO3 has an obvious effect on tar cracking and H2S removal. The sulfur removal efficiency attains 80% with Ca/S molar ratio 2.5.

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