And is it English?

1996 ◽  
Vol 17 (2) ◽  
pp. 153-174 ◽  
Author(s):  
Manfred Görlach
Keyword(s):  
Individual Case ◽  
Code Switching ◽  
Speech Community ◽  
Text Type ◽  
Contact Situation ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Mixed Languages

Varieties of English defined by users (as dialects, sociolects and chronolects) and by uses (according to medium, formality, text type, etc.) have been the object of description in various places, and have of course functioned conspicuously in this journal which has the topic as part of its title. By contrast, the questions of what can be considered English, and how its outer boundaries are defined, have been asked less frequently, and not in any comprehensive way. (In EWW I have followed a pragmatic editorial course in admitting varieties which have some linguistic relationship with English and are in a contact situation/coexistence with English in the speech community discussed.) My paper looks at a few 'problem cases' among utterances, in particular at various forms of broken English and linguistic experiments, at language mix and code-switching and then turns to linguistic systems, with semi-languages, pidgins, creoles, cants and mixed languages singled out for detailed discussion. A classification of the varieties treated obviously depends on the degree of their divergence from English, their functional range and standardization, users' attitudes and the ways how the language is acquired — four factors which can have different weight for the classification in the individual case.

Prosody: A feature of languages or a feature of speakers?

2019 ◽  
Vol 16 (3) ◽  
pp. 462-474 ◽  
Author(s):  
Carmen Muñiz-Cachón
Keyword(s):  
Experimental Study ◽  
Code Switching ◽  
The Other ◽  
Speech Community ◽  
Prosodic Features ◽  
Social Situations ◽  
Research Project ◽  
Linguistic Interference ◽  
The Individual

Abstract Social situations of language coexistence have resulted in linguistic manifestations of bilingualism and diglossia, including linguistic interference, lexical loans and code switching. What role does prosody play in social bilingualism? In other words, when contact between different languages is not restricted to the individual but affects an entire speech community, does a dominant prosody exist? Does prosody vary among different linguistic varieties? In order to find an answer to these questions, we hereby show the results of a research project on the prosodic features of Asturian and Castilian spoken in the centre of Asturias. This experimental study is based on the speech of four informants from Oviedo – two men and two women – two of which speak Castilian, while the other two speak Asturian.

Observation of Children in a Psychiatric In-Patient Unit

1963 ◽  
Vol 109 (461) ◽  
pp. 572-578 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael Pritchard
Keyword(s):  
Child Psychiatry ◽  
Clinical Picture ◽  
Individual Case ◽  
Focus Attention ◽  
Adult Psychiatry ◽  
Psychological Medicine ◽  
Growth Of Knowledge ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Clear Description

As a specialty within a specialty, child psychiatry has now a well-established place in psychological medicine. Yet differences commonly exist between the practice of child and adult psychiatry which seem greater than can be attributed solely to differences inherent in their respective subject matter. A particular instance is the general emphasis in child psychiatry on individual diagnosis, with little attempt at categorization as compared with adult psychiatry. However, Cameron (1955) has drawn attention to the limitation of the growth of knowledge imposed by a lack of clear description and some classification of the manifestations of disturbance in the child. He considers it essential to focus attention on the manifest clinical picture. Again, Kanner (1957) in his diagnostic formulations, attempts in a few words to describe the main features of the clinical picture as well as the factors considered to be of aetiological importance in the individual case. There remains however, the difficulty of attempting to classify the presenting symptomatology, though some success in identifying patterns of maladjustment has been obtained by statistical methods (Hewitt and Jenkins, 1946; Lorr and Jenkins, 1953; Collins, Maxwell and Cameron, 1962).

Shoulder Pain at Work: Causation Analysis

2017 ◽  
Vol 22 (1) ◽  
pp. 11-16
Author(s):  
Joel Weddington ◽  
Charles N. Brooks ◽  
Mark Melhorn ◽  
Christopher R. Brigham
Keyword(s):  
Epidemiological Data ◽  
Case Law ◽  
Individual Case ◽  
Shoulder Injury ◽  
Work Related ◽  
Clear Cut ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Causation Analysis ◽  
Injury Causation ◽  
Relevant Factors

Abstract In most cases of shoulder injury at work, causation analysis is not clear-cut and requires detailed, thoughtful, and time-consuming causation analysis; traditionally, physicians have approached this in a cursory manner, often presenting their findings as an opinion. An established method of causation analysis using six steps is outlined in the American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine Guidelines and in the AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Disease and Injury Causation, Second Edition, as follows: 1) collect evidence of disease; 2) collect epidemiological data; 3) collect evidence of exposure; 4) collect other relevant factors; 5) evaluate the validity of the evidence; and 6) write a report with evaluation and conclusions. Evaluators also should recognize that thresholds for causation vary by state and are based on specific statutes or case law. Three cases illustrate evidence-based causation analysis using the six steps and illustrate how examiners can form well-founded opinions about whether a given condition is work related, nonoccupational, or some combination of these. An evaluator's causal conclusions should be rational, should be consistent with the facts of the individual case and medical literature, and should cite pertinent references. The opinion should be stated “to a reasonable degree of medical probability,” on a “more-probable-than-not” basis, or using a suitable phrase that meets the legal threshold in the applicable jurisdiction.

Phonetic iconicity in the evaluative morphology of a sample of Indo-European, Niger-Congo and Austronesian languages

2010 ◽  
Vol 3 (2) ◽  
pp. 156-180 ◽  
Author(s):  
Renáta Gregová ◽  
Lívia Körtvélyessy ◽  
Július Zimmermann
Keyword(s):  
Three Dimensional ◽  
Sound Symbolism ◽  
Three Dimensional Model ◽  
Austronesian Languages ◽  
Place Of Articulation ◽  
European Languages ◽  
Phonetic Symbolism ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Core Vocabulary

Universals Archive (Universal #1926) indicates a universal tendency for sound symbolism in reference to the expression of diminutives and augmentatives. The research ( Štekauer et al. 2009 ) carried out on European languages has not proved the tendency at all. Therefore, our research was extended to cover three language families – Indo-European, Niger-Congo and Austronesian. A three-step analysis examining different aspects of phonetic symbolism was carried out on a core vocabulary of 35 lexical items. A research sample was selected out of 60 languages. The evaluative markers were analyzed according to both phonetic classification of vowels and consonants and Ultan's and Niewenhuis' conclusions on the dominance of palatal and post-alveolar consonants in diminutive markers. Finally, the data obtained in our sample languages was evaluated by means of a three-dimensional model illustrating the place of articulation of the individual segments.

Talking about MOTION in Middle English

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Judith Huber
Keyword(s):  
Middle English ◽  
Old English ◽  
Language Contact ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
The Other ◽  
Motion Verbs ◽  
Text Type ◽  
Anglo Norman ◽  
Contact Situation ◽  
Analysis Of Motion

Chapter 6 begins with an overview of the language contact situation with (Anglo-) French and Latin, resulting in large-scale borrowing in the Middle English period. The analysis of 465 Middle English verbs used to express intransitive motion shows that there are far more French/Latin loans in the path verbs than in the other motion verbs. The range of (new) manner of motion verbs testifies to the manner salience of Middle English: caused motion verbs are also found in intransitive motion meanings, as are French loans which do not have motion uses in continental French. Their motion uses in Anglo-Norman are discussed in terms of contact influence of Middle English. The analysis of motion expression in different texts yields a picture similar to the situation in Old English, with path typically expressed in satellites, and neutral as well as manner of motion verbs being most frequent, depending on text type.

Judicial Lawmaking, Discourse Theory, and the ICTY on Belligerent Reprisals

2011 ◽  
Vol 12 (5) ◽  
pp. 1261-1278 ◽  
Author(s):  
Milan Kuhli ◽  
Klaus Günther
Keyword(s):  
International Criminal Court ◽  
International Criminal ◽  
International Criminal Tribunal ◽  
Individual Case ◽  
Criminal Court ◽  
Discourse Theory ◽  
Criminal Courts ◽  
Normative Expectations ◽  
Judicial Lawmaking ◽  
The Individual

Without presenting a full definition, it can be said that the notion of judicial lawmaking implies the idea that courts create normative expectations beyond the individual case. That is, our question is whether courts' normative declarations have an effect which is abstract and general. Our purpose here is to ask about judicial lawmaking in this sense with respect to international criminal courts and tribunals. In particular, we will focus on the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY). No other international criminal court or tribunal has issued so many judgments as the ICTY, so it seems a particularly useful focus for examining the creation of normative expectations.

Off-line classification of Polish vowel spectra using artificial neural networks

2004 ◽  
Vol 34 (1) ◽  
pp. 37-52
Author(s):  
Wiktor Jassem ◽  
Waldemar Grygiel
Keyword(s):  
Neural Networks ◽  
Numerical Data ◽  
Word List ◽  
Original Data ◽  
Data Matrix ◽  
Probabilistic Neural Networks ◽  
Independent Variable ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Vowel Phoneme

The mid-frequencies and bandwidths of formants 1–5 were measured at targets, at plus 0.01 s and at minus 0.01 s off the targets of vowels in a 100-word list read by five male and five female speakers, for a total of 3390 10-variable spectrum specifications. Each of the six Polish vowel phonemes was represented approximately the same number of times. The 3390* 10 original-data matrix was processed by probabilistic neural networks to produce a classification of the spectra with respect to (a) vowel phoneme, (b) identity of the speaker, and (c) speaker gender. For (a) and (b), networks with added input information from another independent variable were also used, as well as matrices of the numerical data appropriately normalized. Mean scores for classification with respect to phonemes in a multi-speaker design in the testing sets were around 95%, and mean speaker-dependent scores for the phonemes varied between 86% and 100%, with two speakers scoring 100% correct. The individual voices were identified between 95% and 96% of the time, and classifications of the spectra for speaker gender were practically 100% correct.

Assessing the validity of NART-estimated premorbid IQs in the individual case

1990 ◽  
Vol 29 (4) ◽  
pp. 435-436 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. R. Crawford ◽  
K. M. Allan ◽  
R. H. B. Cochrane ◽  
D. M. Parker
Keyword(s):  
Individual Case ◽  
The Individual

Individual and Community: The Changing Role of Megaliths in the Orcadian Neolithic

1985 ◽  
Vol 51 (1) ◽  
pp. 59-74 ◽  
Author(s):  
Niall Sharples
Keyword(s):  
The Other ◽  
Significant Problem ◽  
Neolithic Period ◽  
Size Type ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Changing Role

This paper is an exploration of the chronological development of a series of elaborate and architecturally distinctive chambered tombs on the Islands of Orkney. It begins with a short critique of the present views of the Orcadian Neolithic and highlights a failure to understand chronological developments as the most significant problem. Thus after a brief classification of the monuments there is a detailed discussion of the chronological evidence which consciously avoids typological assumptions. This is followed by an examination of the various uses the tombs were put to and involves an assessment of the location and architectural visibility of the monuments and the remains found in the chamber. When combined with the chronological evidence a series of changes in monument size, type, location and use can be hypothesized for the neolithic period. This culminates in a shift away from burial monuments to physically defined spaces, presumably used for ceremonial purposes. These changes can be interpreted as deliberate manipulation by groups within that society to change the ideological concepts which defined the role of the individual in relation to the other members of the society.

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