Lower Order Cities and National Urbanization Policies: China and India

1984 ◽  
Vol 16 (4) ◽  
pp. 487-512 ◽  
Author(s):  
T Banerjee ◽  
S Schenk
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Lower Order ◽  
National Development ◽  
Spatial Development ◽  
Top Down ◽  
Bottom Up ◽  
China And India ◽  
Effective Role ◽  
Rapid Pace ◽  
And Performance

In this paper, we examine the urbanization history and policies of China and India with a special emphasis on the lower order cities. We consider the proposition that, as the developing countries continue to urbanize at a rapid pace, the lower order cities can play a potentially effective role in guiding future urbanization and in securing a balanced economic and spatial development. Through an examination of the urbanization records, policies, and performance of the lower order cities in these two countries we discuss the ‘top-down’ versus the ‘bottom-up’ approaches to urbanization strategy and national development. We conclude by discussing the nature of the differences between the urbanization policies of China and India and the transferability of the Chinese experience to other contexts.

A Theory of Participative Budgeting

2013 ◽  
Vol 89 (3) ◽  
pp. 1025-1050 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mirko S. Heinle ◽  
Nicholas Ross ◽  
Richard E. Saouma
Keyword(s):  
Information Asymmetry ◽  
Private Information ◽  
Agency Costs ◽  
Top Down ◽  
Maximal Level ◽  
Bottom Up ◽  
Budgetary Slack ◽  
Participative Budgeting ◽  
And Performance ◽  
Budgeting Process

ABSTRACT This paper complements the ongoing empirical discussion surrounding participative budgeting by comparing its economic merits relative to a top-down budgeting alternative. In both budgeting regimes, private information is communicated vertically between a principal and a manager. We show that top-down budgeting incurs fewer agency costs than bottom-up budgeting whenever the level of information asymmetry is relatively low. Although the choice between top-down and bottom-up budgeting ultimately determines who receives private information within the firm, we find that both the principal and manager's preferences over the allocation of private information remain qualitatively similar across the two budgeting paradigms. Specifically, while the principal always prefers either minimal or maximal private information, the manager prefers an interim or maximal level of private information regardless of who is privately informed. Last, we use our model to address empirical inconsistencies relating the firm's choice of budgeting process, the resulting budgetary slack, and performance.

scholarly journals Emergent ecology: Creating inclusive cities through speculative interaction

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Shaneel Kumar
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Urban Planning ◽  
Urban Design ◽  
Cultural Context ◽  
Urban Population ◽  
Top Down ◽  
Bottom Up ◽  
Socioeconomic Condition ◽  
Short Period ◽  
Design Behaviour

<p>Many cities within developing countries are facing an increased demand for space to work and live as contemporary top-down urbanisation strains to facilitate the rising urban population. Future projections estimate that the world’s population will transition from rural to urban living within a relatively short period of time, causing concern towards transition and facilitation of culturally specific demographics and their values within the existing socioeconomic condition of a city. This research proposes a speculative bottom-up approach to urban design which utilises the behavioural tendencies of various demographics within a cultural context to inform how a city can facilitate inclusivity through diverse social and economic interaction. Inclusive cities are paramount to the socioeconomic success of developing countries, with the potential to provide over 80% of the country’s economic growth. This investigation looks at New Delhi, India as a context within which to test the proposed emergent model for urban design (behaviour driven approach) using a simulation-based methodology to test how New Delhi’s various demographics can diversely interact to invoke an inclusive future city in response. The speculative design investigation of this research will highlight the potential of bottom-up urban design and the merit of using behaviour-based, emergent methodologies for urban planning, creating diverse interaction and an alternative to contemporary top-down urban planning. The aim of the research is to develop a methodology for simulating how agent behaviour can be utilised to inform urban design. The methodology will simulate an urban population by utilising individual and collective behaviour to inform the organisation of density within an urban scale. The data will form a “pre-geometry state” in which typology, infrastructure and other key nodes can be instanced to create an emergent, urban ecology informed by agent interactions.</p>

scholarly journals Emergent ecology: Creating inclusive cities through speculative interaction

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Shaneel Kumar
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Urban Planning ◽  
Urban Design ◽  
Cultural Context ◽  
Urban Population ◽  
Top Down ◽  
Bottom Up ◽  
Socioeconomic Condition ◽  
Short Period ◽  
Design Behaviour

<p>Many cities within developing countries are facing an increased demand for space to work and live as contemporary top-down urbanisation strains to facilitate the rising urban population. Future projections estimate that the world’s population will transition from rural to urban living within a relatively short period of time, causing concern towards transition and facilitation of culturally specific demographics and their values within the existing socioeconomic condition of a city. This research proposes a speculative bottom-up approach to urban design which utilises the behavioural tendencies of various demographics within a cultural context to inform how a city can facilitate inclusivity through diverse social and economic interaction. Inclusive cities are paramount to the socioeconomic success of developing countries, with the potential to provide over 80% of the country’s economic growth. This investigation looks at New Delhi, India as a context within which to test the proposed emergent model for urban design (behaviour driven approach) using a simulation-based methodology to test how New Delhi’s various demographics can diversely interact to invoke an inclusive future city in response. The speculative design investigation of this research will highlight the potential of bottom-up urban design and the merit of using behaviour-based, emergent methodologies for urban planning, creating diverse interaction and an alternative to contemporary top-down urban planning. The aim of the research is to develop a methodology for simulating how agent behaviour can be utilised to inform urban design. The methodology will simulate an urban population by utilising individual and collective behaviour to inform the organisation of density within an urban scale. The data will form a “pre-geometry state” in which typology, infrastructure and other key nodes can be instanced to create an emergent, urban ecology informed by agent interactions.</p>

scholarly journals Rethinking the elusive construct of global self-concept: A latent composite score as the apex of the Shavelson model

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Laura Braun ◽  
Sven Rieger ◽  
Marion Spengler ◽  
Richard Göllner ◽  
Norman Rose ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Lower Order ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Second Order ◽  
Composite Score ◽  
Self Concept ◽  
Top Down ◽  
Bottom Up ◽  
Model Based ◽  
New Perspective ◽  
Composite Scores

The multidimensional, hierarchical model of self-concept by Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton (1976) is a cornerstone of modern self-concept research. Given the comprehensive research interest in it, it is surprising that one core aspect of this model has yet to be clarified: What is the best way to operationalize the elusive construct of global self-concept as the apex of the hierarchy? Previous research implemented global self-concept by applying reflective modeling procedures (e.g., second-order factor models) that followed a top-down logic, which assumes that global self-concept affects lower order self-concepts. However, theoretical considerations have often equally emphasized bottom-up processes, in which lower order self-concepts form a global self-concept. Yet, a bottom-up approach has not garnered much empirical interest, most likely because the requisite statistical models have not been available. The recently proposed model-based latent composite score can fill this gap. Therefore, we contrasted top-down and bottom-up representations of global self-concept by comparing conventional second-order factors and model-based latent composite scores. Across three independent large-scale studies (Study 1: N = 8,063; Study 2: N = 3,081; Study 3: N = 2,106), the second-order factors reproduced only small amounts of interindividual differences, which boosted the correlations with external criteria (i.e., self-esteem, enjoyment of school, academic outcomes) to theoretically and somewhat empirically implausible levels. By contrast, the composite score showed a more plausible pattern of stabilities and correlations. We discuss the consequences of the two approaches and propose the latent composite score as a new perspective on the apex of the Shavelson model.

‘Top-down’ planning for scalable sustainable sanitation in high-density low-income urban areas: is it more appropriate than ‘bottom-up’ planning?

2018 ◽  
Vol 8 (2) ◽  
pp. 165-175 ◽  
Author(s):  
Duncan Mara
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Low Income ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Universal Access ◽  
Low Cost ◽  
High Density ◽  
Top Down ◽  
Bottom Up ◽  
The Sustainable Development ◽  
Sanitation Systems

Abstract We argue that, if the sanitation target of the Sustainable Development Goals (universal access to ‘safely-managed’ sanitation by 2030) is to have any chance of success, then a community-sensitive top-down planning approach has to be adopted for sanitation provision in high-density low-income urban areas in developing countries, as ‘bottom-up’ planning is much more time-consuming and not yet successfully proven at scale. In high-density low-income urban areas, there is only a limited choice for safely-managed sanitation: (i) simplified/condominial sewerage (which becomes cheaper than on-site sanitation systems at the relatively low population densities of 160–200 people per ha), (ii) low-cost combined sewerage (if it is cheaper than separate simplified sewerage and stormwater drainage), (iii) community-managed sanitation blocks, and (iv) container-based sanitation (the last two of which are suitable, especially in slums, when neither simplified sewerage nor low-cost combined sewerage is affordable or technically feasible). These four sustainable sanitation options are as scalable in developing countries as conventional sewerage has been in industrialized countries.

A combination of bottom-up and top-down approaches for calculating of air emission for developing countries: a case of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

2019 ◽  
Vol 12 (9) ◽  
pp. 1059-1072 ◽  
Author(s):  
Quoc Bang Ho ◽  
Hoang Ngoc Khue Vu ◽  
Thoai Tam Nguyen ◽  
Thi Thuy Hang Nguyen ◽  
Thi Thu Thuy Nguyen
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Ho Chi Minh City ◽  
Top Down ◽  
Bottom Up ◽  
Air Emission

Psychology and Culture: Top Down Versus Bottom Up?

PsycCRITIQUES ◽  
2005 ◽  
Vol 50 (19) ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael Cole
Keyword(s):  
Top Down ◽  
Bottom Up
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