Lymphopenia is common in severe COVID-19 disease, yet the mechanisms are poorly understood. In 148 patients with severe COVID-19, we found lymphopenia was associated with worse survival. CD4+ lymphopenia predominated, with lower CD4+/CD8+ ratios in severe COVID-19 compared to recovered, mild disease (p<0.0001). In severe disease, immunodominant CD4+ T cell responses to Spike-1(S1) produced increased in vitro TNF-α, but impaired proliferation and increased susceptibility to activation-induced cell death (AICD). CD4+TNF-α+ T cell responses inversely correlated with absolute CD4+ counts from severe COVID-19 patients (n=76; R=-0.744, P<0.0001). TNF-α blockade including infliximab or anti-TNFRI antibodies strikingly rescued S1-specific CD4+ proliferation and abrogated S1-AICD in severe COVID-19 patients (P<0.001). Single-cell RNAseq demonstrated downregulation of Type-1 cytokines and NFκB signaling in S1-stimulated CD4+ cells with infliximab treatment. Lung CD4+ T cells in severe COVID-19 were reduced and produced higher TNF-α versus PBMC. Together, our findings show COVID-19-associated CD4+ lymphopenia and dysfunction is autocrine TNF-α/TNFRI-dependent and therapies targeting TNF-α may be beneficial in severe COVID-19.
Dominant TNF-α+ Mycobacterium tuberculosis–specific CD4+ T cell responses discriminate between latent infection and active disease