Research has examined the association between contact with media coverage of mass trauma events and various psychological outcomes, including depression. Disaster-related depression research is complicated by the relatively high prevalence of the major depressive disorder in general populations even without trauma exposure. The extant research is inconclusive regarding associations between disaster media contact and depression outcomes, in part, because most studies have not distinguished diagnostic and symptomatic outcomes, differentiated postdisaster incidence from prevalence, or considered disaster trauma exposures. This study examined these associations in a volunteer sample of 254 employees of New York City businesses after the 11 September 2001, terrorist attacks. Structured interviews and questionnaires were administered 35 months after the attacks. Poisson and logistic regression analyses revealed that post-9/11 news contact significantly predicted the number of postdisaster persistent/recurrent and incident depressive symptoms in the full sample and in the indirect and unexposed groups. The findings suggest that clinical and public health approaches should be particularly alert to potential adverse postdisaster depression outcomes related to media consumption in disaster trauma-unexposed or indirectly-exposed groups.
This chapter provides an overview of disaster-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The chapter begins by examining the special role that disasters have in contributing to our general understanding of PTSD. It further explores the critical roles played by both disaster trauma and exposure to it toward the development of PTSD, by applying nosology of the disorder and understanding the construction of criteria for its diagnosis. The chapter explains procedures and methods for assessment of disaster-related PTSD in individuals and in populations, reviews risk factors for PTSD after disasters, and describes the post-disaster course of PTSD. Finally, the chapter provides an operational approach with a mental health framework to address PTSD associated with exposure to disaster.
Psychological First Aid (PFA) consists of a systematic set of helping actions aimed at reducing initial post-trauma distress and supporting short- and long-term adaptive functioning. Designed as an initial component of a comprehensive disaster/trauma response, PFA is constructed around eight core actions: contact and engagement, safety and comfort, stabilization, information gathering, practical assistance, connection with social supports, information on coping support, and linkage with collaborative services. PFA for children and adolescents focuses on these same core actions, with modifications to make them developmentally appropriate. Formal evaluation of the effectiveness of PFA is needed and it is hoped that development of a PFA Field Operations Guide will facilitate such evaluation.
Associations between News Media Coverage of the 11 September Attacks and Depression in Employees of New York City Area Businesses