Short-term memory and time estimation: Beyond the 2-second "critical" value.

Abstract. The Sternberg short-term memory scanning task has been used to unveil cognitive operations involved in time perception. Participants produce time intervals during the task, and the researcher explores how task performance affects interval production – where time estimation error is the dependent variable of interest. The perspective of predictive behavior regards time estimation error as a temporal prediction error (PE), an independent variable that controls cognition, behavior, and learning. Based on this perspective, we investigated whether temporal PEs affect short-term memory scanning. Participants performed temporal predictions while they maintained information in memory. Model inference revealed that PEs affected memory scanning response time independently of the memory-set size effect. We discuss the results within the context of formal and mechanistic models of short-term memory scanning and predictive coding, a Bayes-based theory of brain function. We state the hypothesis that our finding could be associated with weak frontostriatal connections and weak striatal activity.

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Order information in short-term memory and time estimation

Memory & Cognition ◽

10.3758/bf03201213 ◽

1999 ◽

Vol 27 (1) ◽

pp. 54-62 ◽

Cited By ~ 27

Author(s):

Claudette Fortin ◽

Nathalie Massé

Keyword(s):

Short Term Memory ◽

Time Estimation ◽

Order Information ◽

Short Term ◽

Term Memory

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Proactive Interference and Intertrial Interval in Short-Term Retention of Temporal Visual Information

Perceptual and Motor Skills ◽

10.2466/pms.1986.63.2.839 ◽

1986 ◽

Vol 63 (2) ◽

pp. 839-846 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Michel Guay

Keyword(s):

Proactive Interference ◽

Visual Information ◽

Short Term Memory ◽

Time Estimation ◽

Short Term ◽

Term Memory ◽

Term Retention ◽

Retention Intervals ◽

Variable Errors

The main purpose was to examine the role of proactive interference in temporal short-term memory when subjects experienced time under a conscious cognitive strategy for time estimation, made without time-aiding techniques. Visual durations of 1, 4, and 8 sec. were estimated by 18 subjects under the method of reproduction. Three retention intervals were used: immediate reproduction, 15, and 30 sec. of rest. The three intertrial intervals were immediate, 15, and 30 sec. Constant error was used as an index of bias. The constant errors provided no indication that proactive interference was operating in temporal short-term memory. The lack of proactive interference was not associated with intertrial intervals; even when the intertrial intervals were shortened to 1 sec. no proactive interference was observed. Variable error was used to evaluate effects of forgetting. The variable errors for the 4- and 8-sec. durations seemed amenable to a trace-decay explanation.

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Time estimation and concurrent nontemporal processing: Specific interference from short-term-memory demands

Perception & Psychophysics ◽

10.3758/bf03205202 ◽

1993 ◽

Vol 53 (5) ◽

pp. 536-548 ◽

Cited By ~ 88

Author(s):

C. Fortin ◽

R. Rousseau ◽

P. Bourque ◽

E. Kirouac

Keyword(s):

Short Term Memory ◽

Time Estimation ◽

Short Term ◽

Term Memory

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A SYSTEMATIC REPLICATION OF VARIATIONS IN VERBAL CONTENT AND DELAY ON TIME ESTIMATION AND SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Perceptual and Motor Skills ◽

10.2466/pms.96.4.1215-1222 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 96 (4) ◽

pp. 1215

Author(s):

WILLIAM F. VITULLI

Keyword(s):

Short Term Memory ◽

Time Estimation ◽

Short Term ◽

Term Memory ◽

Systematic Replication ◽

Verbal Content

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Perception of Time: Variations in Verbal Content and Delay of Estimation

Perceptual and Motor Skills ◽

10.2466/pms.2001.92.1.316 ◽

2001 ◽

Vol 92 (1) ◽

pp. 316-318 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

William F. Vitulli ◽

Yvette M. Nemeth

Keyword(s):

Short Term Memory ◽

Time Estimation ◽

General Psychology ◽

Short Term ◽

Term Memory ◽

Verbal Content ◽

Time Variations ◽

Perception Of Time

Delay of time estimation results in consistently longer judgments than immediate estimation, yet confirmatory studies have relied primarily on numerical digits for interpolated material as shown, for example, by Vitulli and Rowe in 1999. The present study used three paragraphs audiotaped from a 1998 textbook in general psychology by Baron as stimuli presented for judgment of the passage of time. Among 218 undergraduate volunteers delay of estimation produced significantly longer judgments regardless of the verbal passage, and short-term memory scores varied as a function of content.

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The Deep 3D Convolutional Multi-Branching Spatial-Temporal-Based Unit Predicting Citywide Traffic Flow

Applied Sciences ◽

10.3390/app10217778 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (21) ◽

pp. 7778 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Zain Ul Abideen ◽

Heli Sun ◽

Zhou Yang ◽

Amir Ali

Keyword(s):

Traffic Flow ◽

Traffic Congestion ◽

Traffic Management ◽

Short Term Memory ◽

Time Estimation ◽

External Factors ◽

Short Term ◽

Term Memory ◽

Long Short Term Memory ◽

Real World Datasets

Recently, for public safety and traffic management, traffic flow prediction is a crucial task. The citywide traffic flow problem is still a big challenge in big cities because of many complex factors. However, to handle some complex factors, e.g., spatial-temporal and some external factors in the intelligent traffic flow forecasting problem, spatial-temporal data for urban applications (i.e., travel time estimation, trajectory planning, taxi demand, traffic congestion, and the regional rainfall) is inherently stochastic and unpredictable. In this paper, we proposed a deep learning-based novel model called “multi-branching spatial-temporal attention-based long-short term memory residual unit (MBSTALRU)” for the citywide traffic flow from lower-level layers to high-level layers, simultaneously. In our work, initially, we have modeled the traffic flow with spatial correlations multiple 3D volume layers and propose the novel multi-branching scheme to control the spatial-temporal features. Our approach is useful for exploring temporal dependencies through the 3D convolutional neural network (CNN) multiple branches, which aim to merge the spatial-temporal characteristics of historical data with three-time intervals, namely closeness, daily, and weekly, and we have embedded features by attention-based long-short term memory (LSTM). Then, we capture the correlation between traffic inflow and outflow with residual layers units. In the end, we merge the external factors dynamically to predict citywide traffic flow simultaneously. The simulation results have been performed on two real-world datasets, BJTaxi and NYCBike, which show better performance and effectiveness of the proposed method than previous state-of-the-art models.

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A Systematic Replication of Variations in Verbal Content and Delay on Time Estimation and Short-Term Memory

Perceptual and Motor Skills ◽

10.2466/pms.2003.96.3c.1215 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 96 (3_suppl) ◽

pp. 1215-1222 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

William F. Vitulli

Keyword(s):

Nonsense Syllable ◽

Short Term Memory ◽

Time Estimation ◽

General Psychology ◽

Short Term ◽

Term Memory ◽

Systematic Replication ◽

Verbal Content ◽

Post Hoc ◽

Delayed Time

Vitulli and Nemeth reported in 2001 that among 218 undergraduate volunteers delay of estimation produced significantly longer judgments of time regardless of the verbal passage while short-term memory scores varied as a function of verbal content. In this systematic replication 112 volunteers used three paragraphs audiotaped from a 1998 textbook in general psychology by Baron as stimuli presented for judgment of the passage of time and for short-term memory tests. Addition of control conditions using as stimuli nonsense syllables equal in duration to the three paragraphs did not have an effect contrary to past studies. Yet post hoc tests with nonsense-syllable data removed showed significance between immediate and delayed time estimations consistent with past studies, suggesting boundary conditions for this historically robust effect. Length of segment resulted in significantly different estimations of time as expected. An interaction of short-term memory scores between delay of estimation and content of verbal material showed short-term memory scores were significant between paragraphs and for delay of test (immediate versus delayed).

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Effect of Interpolated Temporal Activity on Temporal Short-Term Memory

Perceptual and Motor Skills ◽

10.2466/pms.1988.67.3.743 ◽

1988 ◽

Vol 67 (3) ◽

pp. 743-748 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Michel Guay ◽

Alan W. Salmoni

Keyword(s):

Retroactive Interference ◽

Short Term Memory ◽

Time Estimation ◽

Temporal Information ◽

Interference Effects ◽

Short Term ◽

Term Memory ◽

Information Recall ◽

Counting Strategy ◽

Criterion Duration

The purpose of this research was to determine the retroactive interference effects of a single interpolated task (i.e., one temporal duration) on the retention of a criterion duration. This research is of interest because the mnemonic structure of temporal information of different durations is uncertain. Previous research has indicated that there might be a difference in structure for durations of 1 and 4 sec., although the results are inconsistent. Thus, two criterion durations of 1 and 4 sec. and five interpolated durations (i.e., 60%, 80%, 100%, 120%, and 140% of the duration of the criterion) were utilized under the method of reproduction. In addition, subjects were instructed to use either a counting strategy or none (referred to as conscious time estimation) to facilitate the retention of the temporal information. Recall was less variable when using a counting strategy than not and when estimating 1 sec. than 4 sec. However, there was no effect of interpolated activity when comparing performance across different interpolated conditions (no interpolated activity). Apparently, one interpolated duration is not sufficient to produce structural interference with a single criterion duration.

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