The Invention of Taxation in the Inka Empire

2018 ◽  
Vol 30 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-16
Author(s):  
Gary Urton ◽  
Alejandro Chu
Keyword(s):  
Alternative Hypothesis ◽  
Fixed Number ◽  
South Coast ◽  
Storage Facility ◽  
Black Beans ◽  
Agricultural Produce ◽  
Inka Empire ◽  
Chili Peppers ◽  
Coast Site

Several khipus—Inka knotted-string recording devices—were recently excavated at a storage facility at the Peruvian south coast site of Inkawasi, found buried under agricultural produce (i.e., chili peppers, peanuts, and black beans). These khipus contain a formulaic arrangement of numerical values not encountered on khipus from elsewhere in Tawantinsuyu (the Inka Empire). The formula includes first, a large number, hypothesized to record the sum total of produce included in a deposit, followed by a “fixed number,” and then one or more additional numbers. The fixed number plus the additional number(s) sum to the original large number. It is hypothesized that the fixed number represents an amount deducted from the deposit to support storage facility personnel. As such, it represented a tax assessed on deposits, the first evidence we have for a system of taxation on goods in the Inka Empire. It is proposed that the size and complexity of the storage facility at Inkawasi prompted the “invention” of a kind of financing instrument—taxation—not known previously from Inka administration. We also consider, but provisionally set aside, the alternative hypothesis that the fixed values recorded on the Inkawasi khipus could have represented amounts of seeds set aside from deposits for the next year's planting.

Accounting in the King's Storehouse: the Inkawasi Khipu Archive

2015 ◽  
Vol 26 (4) ◽  
pp. 512-529 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gary Urton ◽  
Alejandro Chu
Keyword(s):  
South Coast ◽  
Storage Facility ◽  
The South ◽  
Checks And Balances ◽  
Black Beans ◽  
Paired Samples ◽  
Agricultural Produce ◽  
Close Study ◽  
History Of ◽  
Accounting Units

The site of Inkawasi (or Incahuasi) is located in the Cahete Valley, on the south coast of Peru. It was a major garrison and storage facility for the Inka expansion onto the south coast, built for housing and provisioning troops in the Inka assault on the Huarco peoples. Archaeological excavations of the storage facility have exposed what is to date a collection of 34 khipus (or quipus), the Inka knotted-string recording devices. We first explain why we consider the collection to constitute an “archive” and what the implications of that classification are for considering the significance of such a large collection of accounting devices associated with state storage. Several of the khipus were found associated with, or covered by, aji (Capsicum sp.), peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), and black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). We suggest that these may be the products that the khipus recorded. Several khipus were tied together, and two sets of tied, paired samples are shown to contain very similar quantitative records. Close study of the paired samples, as well as the numerical values knotted into several other khipus, reveal different strategies that were being used by the khipu-keepers to maintain “checks-and-balances” accounting. Evidence was also found of possible standardized accounting units for agricultural produce brought to Inkawasi. These took the form of a grid-like array of squares produced by impressing ropes into the floors of two rectangular sorting spaces in the storage complex. The grid-work of squares may have served in the process of spreading out the produce on the floor and collecting and accounting for these products in standardized units. We conclude with reflections on how the processes, procedures, and routines of accounting observed at Inkawasi provide information for approaching the writing of an autochthonous history of the Inka state based on the study of accounting practices.

scholarly journals GEOSPATIAL PERSPECTIVE FOR POST-HARVEST INFRASTRUCTURE MANAGEMENT: POSITIONING OF NEW COLD STORAGE

2019 ◽  
Vol XLII-3/W6 ◽  
pp. 339-344
Author(s):  
P. Vijjapu ◽  
M. M. Kimothi ◽  
S. Roy ◽  
S. Mamatha ◽  
S. S. Ray
Keyword(s):  
Cold Storage ◽  
Potato Production ◽  
Temporal Variations ◽  
Infrastructure Management ◽  
Storage Facility ◽  
Post Harvest ◽  
Agricultural Produce ◽  
New Locations ◽  
Crop Area ◽  
Bihar State

<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> The deficiency in post-harvest infrastructure leads to loss of agricultural produce which in turn affects farmer’s income and food security. So, there is a need to improve post-harvest infrastructure in the country. Potato is a major horticultural crop requiring cold storage facility. This study was carried out for Bihar state of India, which has the least ratio of storage capacity to potato production in comparison to other states. An approach has been developed to identify the suitable locations for cold storages using geospatial technology to increase accessibility to cold storage facilities. Temporal variations in vegetation profiles were used to generate crop maps and from this crop area proportions were calculated at village level. These proportions were used to identify significant village clusters contributing to horticulture production. From this priority villages were identified. These priority villages were assigned to nearest major settlement which will be the sites for positioning new cold storage facility. The approach developed in this study has identified 63 locations in 17 districts for developing new cold storage facility. The proposed new locations for cold storages will reduce the distance to nearest cold storage for 14244 villages and this reduction in distance will be more than 8 kms for 9774 villages. Thus, the study validated the role of Remote Sensing and GIS for post-harvest infrastructure planning.</p>

scholarly journals On the Convergence of the Benjamini–Hochberg Procedure

Mathematics ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (17) ◽  
pp. 2154
Author(s):  
Dean Palejev ◽  
Mladen Savov
Keyword(s):  
Lower Bound ◽  
Exponential Type ◽  
Alternative Hypothesis ◽  
Fixed Number ◽  
Multiple Comparison ◽  
Asymptotic Convergence ◽  
Test Statistic ◽  
Scientific Methods

The Benjamini–Hochberg procedure is one of the most used scientific methods up to date. It is widely used in the field of genetics and other areas where the problem of multiple comparison arises frequently. In this paper we show that under fairly general assumptions for the distribution of the test statistic under the alternative hypothesis, when increasing the number of tests, the power of the Benjamini–Hochberg procedure has an exponential type of asymptotic convergence to a previously shown limit of the power. We give a theoretical lower bound for the probability that for a fixed number of tests the power is within a given interval around its limit together with a software routine that calculates these values. This result is important when planning costly experiments and estimating the achieved power after performing them.

Idiographic Dynamics of Positive Affect in GAD

2020 ◽  
Vol 36 (3) ◽  
pp. 500-509
Author(s):  
Hannah G. Bosley ◽  
Devon B. Sandel ◽  
Aaron J. Fisher
Keyword(s):  
Positive Affect ◽  
Structural Equation ◽  
Alternative Hypothesis ◽  
Equation Model ◽  
Aggregated Data ◽  
Regulatory Strategy ◽  
Constant State ◽  
Automatic Search ◽  
Time Lagged ◽  
Exploratory Procedure

Abstract. Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is associated with worry and emotion regulation difficulties. The contrast-avoidance model suggests that individuals with GAD use worry to regulate emotion: by worrying, they maintain a constant state of negative affect (NA), avoiding a feared sudden shift into NA. We tested an extension of this model to positive affect (PA). During a week-long ecological momentary assessment (EMA) period, 96 undergraduates with a GAD analog provided four daily measurements of worry, dampening (i.e., PA suppression), and PA. We hypothesized a time-lagged mediation relationship in which higher worry predicts later dampening, and dampening predicts subsequently lower PA. A lag-2 structural equation model was fit to the group-aggregated data and to each individual time-series to test this hypothesis. Although worry and PA were negatively correlated in 87 participants, our model was not supported at the nomothetic level. However, idiographically, our model was well-fit for about a third (38.5%) of participants. We then used automatic search as an idiographic exploratory procedure to detect other time-lagged relationships between these constructs. While 46 individuals exhibited some cross-lagged relationships, no clear pattern emerged across participants. An alternative hypothesis about the speed of the relationship between variables is discussed using contemporaneous correlations of worry, dampening, and PA. Findings suggest heterogeneity in the function of worry as a regulatory strategy, and the importance of temporal scale for detection of time-lagged effects.

Interactive multiobjective DEA target setting using lexicographic DDF

2020 ◽  
Vol 54 (6) ◽  
pp. 1703-1722 ◽  
Author(s):  
Narges Soltani ◽  
Sebastián Lozano
Keyword(s):  
Efficient Frontier ◽  
Directional Distance Function ◽  
Fixed Number ◽  
Optimization Approach ◽  
Target Setting ◽  
Interactive Process ◽  
Decision Making Unit ◽  
Setting Approach ◽  
Promising Area ◽  
Current Region

In this paper, a new interactive multiobjective target setting approach based on lexicographic directional distance function (DDF) method is proposed. Lexicographic DDF computes efficient targets along a specified directional vector. The interactive multiobjective optimization approach consists in several iteration cycles in each of which the Decision Making Unit (DMU) is presented a fixed number of efficient targets computed corresponding to different directional vectors. If the DMU finds one of them promising, the directional vectors tried in the next iteration are generated close to the promising one, thus focusing the exploration of the efficient frontier on the promising area. In any iteration the DMU may choose to finish the exploration of the current region and restart the process to probe a new region. The interactive process ends when the DMU finds its most preferred solution (MPS).

Phospholipid-Protein Interactions in the Formation of Prothrombin Activator

1965 ◽  
Vol 14 (03/04) ◽  
pp. 431-444 ◽  
Author(s):  
E. R Cole ◽  
J. L Koppel ◽  
J. H Olwin
Keyword(s):  
Complex Formation ◽  
Protein Interactions ◽  
Calcium Ions ◽  
Fixed Number ◽  
Factor V ◽  
Clotting Factors ◽  
Number Of Binding Sites ◽  
C Complex ◽  
Autoprothrombin C

SummarySince Ac-globulin (factor V) is involved in the formation of prothrombin activator, its ability to complex with phospholipids was studied. Purified bovine Ac-globulin was complexed to asolectin, there being presumably a fixed number of binding sites on the phospholipid micelle for Ac-globulin. In contrast to the requirement for calcium ions in the formation of complexes between asolectin and autoprothrombin C, calcium ions were not required for complex formation between asolectin and Ac-globulin to occur ; in fact, the presence of calcium prevented complex formation occurring, the degree of inhibition being dependent on the calcium concentration. By treating isolated, pre-formed aso- lectin-Ac-globulin complexes with calcium chloride solutions, Ac-globulin could be recovered in a much higher state of purity and essentially free of asolectin.Complete activators were formed by first preparing the asolectin-calcium- autoprothrombin C complex and then reacting the complex with Ac-globulin. A small amount of this product was very effective as an activator of purified prothrombin without further addition of calcium or any other cofactor. If the autoprothrombin C preparation used to prepare the complex was free of traces of prothrombin, the complete activator was stable for several hours at room temperature. Stable preparations of the complete activator were centrifuged, resulting in the sedimentation of most of the activity. Experimental evidence also indicated that activator activity was highest when autoprothrombin C and Ac-globulin were complexed to the same phospholipid micelle, rather than when the two clotting factors were complexed to separate micelles. These data suggested that the in vivo prothrombin activator may be a sedimentable complex composed of a thromboplastic enzyme, calcium, Ac-globulin and phospholipid.

TEACHING READING BY UTILIZING HOT POTATOES SOFTWARE TOWARD STUDENTS’ READING COMPREHENSION OF DESCRIPTIVE TEXT

2018 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
pp. 26
Author(s):  
Abdullah Farih
Keyword(s):  
Reading Comprehension ◽  
Alternative Hypothesis ◽  
T Test ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Teaching Reading ◽  
Post Test ◽  
Quasi Experimental ◽  
Independent Variable ◽  
Level Of Significance ◽  
And Control

The objective of this study is to measure whether there is or not significant effect of teaching reading by utilizing Hot Potatoes software toward students’ reading comprehension of descriptive text. The variables used were the teaching treatment of Hot Potatoes Software as the independent variable and the students’ reading comprehension of Descriptive Text as dependent variable. Then, the research designed was Quasi-experimental design and the presentation of data used was quantitative. The data were obtained from the eleventh grade, of which 28 students were taken as sample. The students are divided into two groups; experiment group consisted of 12 students and control group consists of 16 students. To get the data, the pre-test and post-test were applied and then analyzed using t-test formula. The researcher had concluded that there is Significant effect of Hot Potatoes Software toward the students’ reading comprehension achievement. The result showed that mean of students’ post-test was increased. It is proved by the t-test (8.54) which is higher than t-table (2.05) at level of significance 5%. It means that the alternative hypothesis was accepted and it proved that Hot Potatoes Software had significant effect toward students’ reading comprehension of Descriptive Text

Insect Pest Management in Stored Products

2020 ◽  
Vol 31 (1) ◽  
pp. 24-35 ◽  
Author(s):  
Somiahnadar Rajendran
Keyword(s):  
Pest Management ◽  
Insect Pests ◽  
Insect Pest ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Stored Products ◽  
Insect Pest Management ◽  
Insect Infestation ◽  
Combination Treatments ◽  
Agricultural Produce ◽  
Food Commodities

Insects are a common problem in stored produce. The author describes the extent of the problem and approaches to countering it. Stored products of agricultural and animal origin, whether edible or non-edible, are favourite food for insect pests. Durable agricultural produce comprising dry raw and processed commodities and perishables (fresh produce) are vulnerable to insect pests at various stages from production till end-use. Similarly, different animal products and museum objects are infested mainly by dermestids. Insect pests proliferate due to favourable storage conditions, temperature and humidity and availability of food in abundance. In addition to their presence in food commodities, insects occur in storages (warehouses, silos) and processing facilities (flour mills, feed mills). Insect infestation is also a serious issue in processed products and packed commodities. The extent of loss in stored products due to insects varies between countries depending on favourable climatic conditions, and pest control measures adopted. In stored food commodities, insect infestation causes loss in quantity, changes in nutritional quality, altered chemical composition, off-odours, changes in end-use products, dissemination of toxigenic microorganisms and associated health implications. The insects contribute to contaminants such as silk threads, body fragments, hastisetae, excreta and chemical secretions. Insect activity in stored products increases the moisture content favouring the growth of moulds that produce mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxin in stored peanuts). Hide beetle, Dermestes maculatus infesting silkworm cocoons has been reported to act as a carrier of microsporidian parasite Nosema bombycis that causes pebrine disease in silkworms. In dried fish, insect infestation leads to higher bacterial count and uric acid levels. Insects cause damage in hides and skins affecting their subsequent use for making leather products. The trend in stored product insect pest management is skewing in favour of pest prevention, monitoring, housekeeping and finally control. Hermetic storage system can be supplemented with CO2 or phosphine application to achieve quicker results. Pest detection and monitoring has gained significance as an important tool in insect pest management. Pheromone traps originally intended for detection of infestations have been advanced as a mating disruption device ensuing pest suppression in storage premises and processing facilities; pheromones also have to undergo registration protocols similar to conventional insecticides in some countries. Control measures involve reduced chemical pesticide use and more non-chemical inputs such as heat, cold/freezing and desiccants. Furthermore, there is an expanding organic market where physical and biological agents play a key role. The management options for insect control depend on the necessity or severity of pest incidence. Generally, nonchemical treatments, except heat, require more treatment time or investment in expensive equipment or fail to achieve 100% insect mortality. Despite insect resistance, environmental issues and residue problems, chemical control is inevitable and continues to be the most effective and rapid control method. There are limited options with respect to alternative fumigants and the alternatives have constraints as regards environmental and health concerns, cost, and other logistics. For fumigation of fresh agricultural produce, new formulations of ethyl formate and phosphine are commercially applied replacing methyl bromide. Resistance management is now another component of stored product pest management. In recent times, fumigation techniques have improved taking into consideration possible insect resistance. Insect control deploying nanoparticles, alone or as carriers for other control agents, is an emerging area with promising results. As there is no single compound with all the desired qualities, a necessity has arisen to adopt multiple approaches. Cocktail applications or combination treatments (IGRs plus organophosphorus insecticides, diatomaceous earth plus contact insecticides, nanoparticles plus insecticides/pathogens/phytocompounds and conventional fumigants plus CO2; vacuum plus fumigant) have been proved to be more effective. The future of store product insect pest management is deployment of multiple approaches and/or combination treatments to achieve the goal quickly and effectively.

A Correspondence-Free Color Chart Design for Color Calibration

2020 ◽  
Vol 2020 (1) ◽  
pp. 100-104
Author(s):  
Hakki Can Karaimer ◽  
Rang Nguyen
Keyword(s):  
Color Space ◽  
Fixed Number ◽  
New Approach ◽  
Color Chart ◽  
Color Calibration ◽  
Space Transformation ◽  
Color Space Transformation ◽  
Chart Design ◽  
Calibration Approach

Colorimetric calibration computes the necessary color space transformation to map a camera's device-specific color space to a device-independent perceptual color space. Color calibration is most commonly performed by imaging a color rendition chart with a fixed number of color patches with known colorimetric values (e. g., CIE XYZ values). The color space transformation is estimated based on the correspondences between the camera's image and the chart's colors. We present a new approach to colorimetric calibration that does not require explicit color correspondences. Our approach computes a color space transformation by aligning the color distributions of the captured image to the known distribution of a calibration chart containing thousands of colors. We show that a histogram-based colorimetric calibration approach provides results that are onpar with the traditional patch-based method without the need to establish correspondences.

A Brief Survey on Text Classification Using Various Machine Learning Techniques

2018 ◽  
Vol 8 (1) ◽  
pp. 14
Author(s):  
Padmavathi .S ◽  
M. Chidambaram
Keyword(s):  
Machine Learning ◽  
Text Classification ◽  
Fixed Number ◽  
Machine Learning Techniques ◽  
Online Information ◽  
Rule Based ◽  
Learning Techniques ◽  
Machine Learning Approach ◽  
Rule Based Approach

Text classification has grown into more significant in managing and organizing the text data due to tremendous growth of online information. It does classification of documents in to fixed number of predefined categories. Rule based approach and Machine learning approach are the two ways of text classification. In rule based approach, classification of documents is done based on manually defined rules. In Machine learning based approach, classification rules or classifier are defined automatically using example documents. It has higher recall and quick process. This paper shows an investigation on text classification utilizing different machine learning techniques.

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