The Effects of Extended Planning Time on Candidates' Performance, Processes, and Strategy Use in the Lecture Listening‐Into‐Speaking Tasks of the TOEFL iBT ® Test

Previous research on the impact of pretask planning on interlanguage development (e.g., Crookes, 1989; Ellis, 1987; Foster & Skehan, 1996) has focused solely on the linguistic quality of planned output, leaving the cognitive and attentional processes engaged during planning time unexplored. Drawing on recent research on focus on form (Doughty & Williams, 1998a) and on retrospective methodologies used in strategy use research (e.g., O'Malley & Chamot, 1990), the study reported here investigated whether planning opportunity results in an increased focus on form at the level of strategic attention to form during planning time, as well as at the level of production outcomes during task performance. The results provide support for the claim that planning before doing an L2 task can promote an increased focus on form by providing space for the learner to devote conscious attention during pretask planning to formal and systemic aspects of the language needed to accomplish a particular task.

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Characteristics of expert vocalists’ practice

International Journal of Music Education ◽

10.1177/02557614211063996 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 025576142110639

Author(s):

Nancy L. Summitt ◽

Brian N. Weidner

Keyword(s):

Music Educators ◽

Strategy Use ◽

Vocal Health ◽

Planning Time ◽

Practice Survey ◽

Practice Opportunities ◽

Specific Practice ◽

Holistic Practice ◽

Further Development

This study investigated expert vocalists’ approaches to practice in terms of planning, time, and strategy usage. Participants were 79 university voice professors and members of professional choirs. The researchers sent each participant the Vocal Practice Survey (VPS)which collected data on the participants’ professional backgrounds, attitudes toward specific practice strategies, and personal practice habits. Results indicated variety in expert vocalists’ approaches to practice, including number of practice sessions per week, length of practice sessions, and structure of practice sessions. Most participants reported using practice resources, especially a piano and a mirror. Participants reported a broad range of frequency in strategy use, with holistic practice strategies dominating. Comments from participants indicated that group rehearsals also served as individual practice opportunities, that there were differences between students’ and experts’ practice, and that an important role of practice was facilitating vocal health. The findings of this study provide a point of reference for comparing vocal practice to instrumental practice and for further development of research of vocal musicians at varying levels of expertise. The researchers also provide recommendations for music educators regarding the instruction and promotion of effective individual vocal practice.

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