The post-meiotic phase of spermatogenesis is characterised by a radical reorganization of the chromatin, leading to its nucleosomal to toroid transition. The replacement of histones with protamine is a gradual process regulated to the hierarchical translation of repressed mRNAs leading to the following events: incorporation of testis-specific histone variants and general histone hyperacetylation, bromodomain proteins, transition proteins, concluded by protamine incorporation on DNA. In this work, we tested whether the induced expression of human protamine 1 (PR1) in sheep somatic cells could induce a protamine/toroid conformation of interphase nuclei. Sheep adult fibroblasts (SAF) were cultured in DMEM with 10% fetal bovine serum from second to eighth passage. Then, SAF at 80% confluence were transfected with 3 μg of pPR1-red fluorescent protein (RFP) and pRFP (CTR) with lipofectamine. At 4 h post-transfection, cells were treated with 5 nM trichostatin A (TSA; histone deacethylase inhibitor) for an additional 16 h. Transfected cells (visualised through the RFP tag) were analysed for nuclear morphology (transmission electron microscopy), PR1-RFP expression (confocal microscope, RT-PCR, Western blot), cytofluorimeter, DNA damage (comet assay, pH2A.X immune-detection), and chromatin immune-precipitation assays (ChIP). Moreover, to visualise the histone/protamine exchange, we transfected with PR1 mouse GFP-H2B fibroblasts. Protaminized cells were used as donors for nuclear transfer (NT) and TH2B (testis/oocyte-specific histone normally present in male pronucleus, a marker of reprogramming) was detected in pronuclear stage of NT zygotes. The χ2 test was used for statistical analyses. We demonstrated that PR1 translocates into the nuclei and gradually compacts them into elongating spermatid-like structures in 48 h; TSA treatment facilitates the process [TSA 83.3% (50/60); without TSA 55.2%; 58/105; P < 0.0003]. A complete histone-to-protamine exchange was also visualised in GFP-H2B nuclei (mouse fibroblasts) 40h after PR1 transfection. Cytofluorimetric analysis demonstrated that protamine incorporation occurs in any cell cycle stage and without DNA breaks. Next, protamine-protamine binding was excluded by ChIP analysis, which confirmed protamine-DNA binding. Finally, protaminized nuclei transplanted into enucleated oocytes incorporated maternal histone TH2B (3/8), whereas no signal was detected in control cells (0/9), suggesting that protaminized nuclei are better remodelled. We conclude that the induced expression of PR1 forces the somatic chromatin to acquire a structure overlapping elongated spermatid/spermatozoa, a conformation that perfectly matches the nuclear reprogramming machinery of the oocyte. Further work will determine whether protaminized cells are better reprogrammed upon nuclear transfer.
ES Cell Extract-Induced Expression of Pluripotent Factors in Somatic Cells